Chapter 12 - Problem Solving

Question 1

What are the steps of problem solving?

Answer 1

1. Recognizing a problem
2. Gathering information
3. Analyzing and solving it
4. Assessing the solutions effectivity

Question 2

What is the goal of problem solving?

Answer 2

To overcome barriers and find a solution that best solves the problem.

Question 3

What influences problem-oriented processing?

Answer 3

Current problems and past problems affect one another.
- Facts
- Strategies
- Beliefs
- Concepts

Question 4

What is the step of recognizing a problem in problem solving?

Answer 4

Accounting for all relevant information:
- From the environment (bottom-up)
- From knowledge/experience (top-down)

Question 5

What are recursive dynamics?

Answer 5

Steps are repeated as many times as necessary.

Question 6

What is the cycle of problem-solving?

Answer 6

1. Recognize the problem
2. Represent problem mentally
3. Develop a solution
4. Organize relevant knowledge
5. Allocate mental/physical resources
6. Monitor goal progress
7. Evaluate solution accuracy

Question 7

What do all models of problem solving include?

Answer 7

1. Initial state
2. Intermediate paths
3. Goal state

Question 8

What is the initial state?

Answer 8

Describes and defines the type of problem.

Question 9

What are intermediate paths?

Answer 9

All of the possible states between initial and goal states.
- Move through a problem space through operators, which are actions that transform current problem states into others

Question 10

What is the goal state?

Answer 10

A state of resolution/overcoming the problem.

Question 11

What are characteristics of well-defined problems?

Answer 11

• Have correct answers
• Clearly defined states
• Effectively solved by humans and computers
• Initial state, goal state, and operators are clearly defined
• Easily solved by using algorithms

Question 12

What are characteristics of ill-defined problems?

Answer 12

• Do not have just one correct answer
• Computers are not good at them
• Can be solved many ways
• Unclear goal states

Question 13

What are the two main theories describing how people approach solving problems?

Answer 13

The behaviourist approach and the gestalt approach.

Question 14

What is the fundamental idea of the behaviourist approach to problem solving?

Answer 14

Problems are solved using knowledge, trial, and error.

Question 15

What is the fundamental idea of the gestalt approach?

Answer 15

Problems are solved by considering them more deeply.

Question 16

What is behaviourism in problem solving?

Answer 16

Concerned with observable behaviours that results from stimulus-response pairs, reinforcement, and punishment based on principles of cause and effect.

Question 17

What did Thorndike propose about behaviourism?

Answer 17

Proposed problem solving was a reproductive process.
- Involves using past knowledge from experience to generate conscious/deliberate solutions to problems
- Rely on trial and error, as we work through problem solving, information is gained and used in subsequent problem scenarios.

Question 18

What is the Law of Effect?

Answer 18

Responses more closely followed by satisfaction are closely tied to the situation.
- Any response that produces a satisfying effect/positive outcome gradually becomes stronger.
Responses more closely followed by discomfort become weakly connected.
- Any response that does not produce a satisfying effect/positive outcome becomes weaker.

Question 19

What is Wertheimer’s perspective of the gestalt approach?

Answer 19

Reproductive thinking does not encompass all the nuances of human problem solving.
Theorists began positing that problem solving was instead a productive process.

Reconsider -> Reframing -> Rethink

Question 20

What is insight?

Answer 20

When a solution to a problem suddenly occurs to you.

Question 21

What is productive process?

Answer 21

Thinking about a problem by manipulating information in your mind.

Question 22

What is the key mechanism in Wertheimer’s perspective of the gestalt approach in problem solving?

Answer 22

Restructuring information.
- Flexible thinking is crucial for representing all methods of solving a problem.
- Gestaltists assert that insight (a-ha moments) are the emergent outcomes of novel information restructuring.
- New insights are often surprising because reframing occurs below levels of consciousness.

Question 23

What are Gestalt theorists interested in?

Answer 23

The parts of problem solving an emergent outcomes. This perspective provides a sound theoretical framework for describing both expected and unexpected problem solutions.

Question 24

What are heuristics?

Answer 24

Rules of thumb, educated guesses, common sense or ‘problem-solving shortcuts’ that help guide judgements and evaluations based on previous experience with similar situations/problems.

Question 25

When does the likelihood of using heuristics increase?

Answer 25

In times of: - Informational overload - Time-sensitive tasks - Unimportant circumstances - Limited information availability - Competing heuristics

Question 26

What is working backwards?

Answer 26

Focusing on the end result in order to solve a problem. (Focusing on the goal state instead of the initial and intermediate paths)

Question 27

What is means-end analysis?

Answer 27

Achieving a goal state by choosing subgoals to complete that move you closer to the ultimate desired outcome.

Question 28

What is ignoring irrelevant information?

Answer 28

- One must decide what is relevant to the task at hand - Ignoring other information is an acquired not innate skill - This is more difficult when dealing with ill- verses well-defined problems

Question 29

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 29

- Perceiving an item only in terms of its most common use - Inhibits other potential interpretations of problem scenarios - People tend to focus on a characteristic of a problem or a ‘fixation’ which prevents them from finding a solution

Question 30

What are insight problems?

Answer 30

Problems in which the solution occurs suddenly in your consciousness.

Question 31

What are non-insight problems?

Answer 31

Problems in which you must consciously work through each step of a problem to arrive at a solution.

Question 32

What is creativity?

Answer 32

Being able to produce novel ideas that are appropriate and relevant to the situation.

Question 33

What are traits of creative people?

Answer 33

- May be more likely to solve a given problem - They can generate many possible solutions that go beyond functional fixedness

Question 34

What are three types of intelligence?

Answer 34

1. Analytical intelligence 2. Practical intelligence 3. Creative intelligence

Question 35

What is analytical intelligence?

Answer 35

Basic academic problem solving, logic, puzzles, IQ.

Question 36

What is practical intelligence?

Answer 36

Ability to understand and deal with everyday tasks… street smarts.

Question 37

What is creative intelligence?

Answer 37

Developing ideas, applying new ideas, creating solutions.

Question 38

How do we measure creativity?

Answer 38

Using ideational fluency, which is the number of ideas a person can generate about a topic or item. Ex. How many ways you can use a pencil, arrange a room, or describe a stormy night?

Question 39

What are mental sets?

Answer 39

The tendency to use solutions that have worked in the past or to respond to something in a set way. - This can make people blind to other solutions - People tend to create these while paying attention to similarities or relationships between past and current problems - Once it has been established, people will keep trying solutions that have worked in the past even if the current issue requires a different solution

Question 40

What are traits of experts when solving problems?

Answer 40

They: - spend more time analyzing a problem - spend less time planning steps to solve it - have automated processes based on experience - spend more time matching current problems with previous ones - use what they already know - quickly execute solving strategies once they know what to do

Question 41

What are disadvantages of experts?

Answer 41

- They may become stuck in certain ways of thinking - They could have too rigid of mental sets to see other solutions - They may foster automatic processes that are maladaptive in novel problem scenarios

Question 42

What are advantages of novices in problem solving?

Answer 42

- They can think outside the box and generate creative solutions - They are not constrained by rigid mental sets - Are not confined by automated processes allowing them to consider more possible problem solutions