Chapter 24 P3

Question 1

Ecotourism
The Masai Mara

Answer 1

• relies on tourism for most of its economic input.
• Thousands of people travel to the region each year, eager to see for themselves the vast numbers of animals present in their natural habitat.
• Ecotourism is tourism directed towards natural environments, to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife.
• It is a type of sustainable development which aims to reduce the impact that tourism has on naturally beautiful environments.
• This is usually seen as a less invasive use of land than agriculture.
• The key principles of ecotourism are to:

Question 2

The key principles of ecotourism are to:

Answer 2

• ensure that tourism does not exploit the natural environment or local communities
• consult and engage with local communities on planned developments
• ensure that infrastructure improvements benefit local people as well as visitors.
  Ecotourism, however, can have negative impacts on the ecosystem.
  There is evidence that tourist movements such as the repeated use of hiking trails, or the use of mechanised transport, may contribute to soil erosion and other habitat changes.

Question 3

Conservation and research

Answer 3

• The nature reserve plays an important role in the conservation of endangered species.
• Some of the most popular large mammals have experienced population declines in recent years - beyond those expected from climate or natural variation
• Black rhinos are one of the most endangered animals in Africa, and appear on the IUCN critically endangered list.
• Despite the trade being illegal, rhino horn is in huge demand, particularly for use in traditional medicine in south-east Asia.
• People are lured into poaching by the vast sums of money offered to trade in this material.
• In 1972, over 100 rhinos lived in the Masai Mara.
• By 1982, illegal poaching meant that only a handful remained.
• An active conservation and protection programme was established to encourage a balance between the needs of local communities and those of the wildlife.
• The programme included the employment of reserve rangers, and the provision of communication equipment, vehicles, and other necessary equipment and infrastructure.
• These measures have helped to deter poachers from entering the reserve and by the mid- 1990s rhino numbers had increased significantly, although it will be some time before population levels return to those seen in the early 1970s.

Question 4

A number of scientific research projects have been (or are currently being) undertaken in the Masai Mara. These include:

Answer 4

• Michigan State University, studying the behaviour and physiology of the predator spotted hyena.
• Subalusky and Dutton, completing a flow assessment for the Mara River Basin. The aim of this research is to identify the river flows needed to provide for both the basic human needs of the million people who depend on the water, and to sustain the ecosystem in its current form.
• The Mara Predator Project, which catalogues and monitors lion populations throughout the region. The project aims to identify population trends and responses to changes in land management, human settlements, livestock movements, and tourism.
• The Mara-Meru Cheetah Project, which aims to monitor the cheetah population and evaluate the impact of human activity on cheetah behaviour and survival.

Question 5

Striking a balance

Answer 5

• Some human land uses in Masai Mara are incompatible with wildlife survival - increasing wildlife density also threatens pastoral and cultivation lifestyles.
• A constant balance has to be maintained between the human and animal populations.

Question 6

constant balance has to be maintained between the human and animal populations. For example:

Answer 6

• Elephants, in particular, threaten cultivation. Large elephant populations are often responsible for crop trampling and damage to homesteads. Other grazing animals may also eat the crops. To prevent these problems land may be fenced, but this has a negative effect on natural migration.
• Legal hunting is used to cull excess animals. This can successfully maintain population numbers and bring in considerable amounts of money for conservation work. However, numbers must be constantly monitored to ensure that levels are sufficient to maintain the natural balance within the ecosystem.
• Livestock also faces threats from migratory wildlife. For example during the annual wildebeest migration, the wildebeest outcompete cattle for grass. Diseases are introduced to the domesticated animal populations. Equally, the domesticated cattle eat vegetation that could be used by migrating zebras and wildebeest, and diseases can spread from the domestic to the wild animals.
• As the human population expands more homes are required as well as land for cattle and agriculture. Evidence suggests that wildlife density declines significantly as the density of the built environment rises.

Question 7

Ecosystem management -
Terai region of Nepal

Answer 7

• The southern part of Nepal contains a rich agricultural area known as the Terai region.
• It stretches along Nepal’s southern border with India, with a width of around 25-30 km.
• The Terai lowlands are defined by a belt of well-watered floodplains stretching from the Indian border in the south to the slopes of the Bhabhar and Siwalik mountain ranges to the north.
• The land of the Terai region is fertile, and is the main agricultural region of the country.
• Alongside farming, people are engaged in a range of trades, industries, and services.
• As a result of the high population density, natural resources are at risk of being overused.

Question 8

Ecosystem - Nepal

Answer 8

• The region is hot and humid in the summer months, and is composed of a fertile alluvial soil which is rich in plant nutrients.
• The Terai is an area of extreme biodiversity - many subtropical plants are found in this region including pipal and bamboo.
• There are also large areas of thick forest where animals such as the Bengal tiger, the sloth bear, and the Indian rhinoceros can be found.
• Millions of people depend on the Terai forests for their livelihoods.
• They are also an important source of national income.
• Primarily as a result of poverty and corruption, large areas of forest have been cleared for agriculture or to sell the timber.
• The removal of large parts of the forest has also exacerbated the effects of monsoon flooding, causing severe disruption to communities downstream.
• If deforestation of the region continues unabated, the communities of the Terai would be left with only small, isolated pockets of forest.
• This would be devastating not only for the wildlife of the region, but also for the local population who rely on the forests for income through tourism, and through harvesting wood for building products and for burning as fuel.

Question 9

Sustainable forest management in Nepal

Answer 9

• The aim of sustainable forest management is to provide a livelihood for local people, ensure the conservation of forests, and provide the Nepali state with considerable income for general development.
• This is being achieved through supportive national legislation, and through the development of local community forestry groups.
• The local groups develop their own operational plans, set harvesting rules, set rates and prices for products, and determine how surplus income is distributed or spent.
• Through the creation of cooperative networks, small forestry businesses can work effectively together - for example, to gain Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) certification, an international standard which rewards sustainable forestry.

Question 10

There have been several successes for the community forestry groups:

Answer 10

• Significant improvement in the conservation of the forested regions, both in terms of increased area and improved density.
• Improved soil and water management across the region.
• An increase in the retail price of forestry products, and so a greater economic input to the region.
• Employment and income generation through forest protection, as well as through the production of non-timber forest products.
• Sustainable wood fuel sources, which contribute three-quarters of the local household energy needs.
• Securing the biodiversity of the forested areas.

Question 11

Promoting sustainable agriculture
The Terai requires a range of management strategies for sustainable land use, to prevent damage of the ecosystem including the further degradation of the Terai forests. These include:

Answer 11

• promoting the production of fruits and vegetables in the hills and mountain regions to avoid further intensification of the Terai
• improving irrigation facilities to enhance crop production
• multiple cropping, where more than one crop is grown on a piece of land each growing season
• the growth of nitrogen-fixing crops such as pulses and legumes to enhance the fertility of the soil
• growing crop varieties resistant to various soil, climatic, and biotic challenges through the use of modern biotechnology and genetic engineering
• improving fertilisation techniques to enhance crop yields - for example, using manure to improve the nutrient content of the soil.
  Through the implementation of sustainable forestry and agricultural practices, the Terai region is now being managed in a manner that will secure both the biodiversity of the region, and the economic welfare of its residents for the future.

Question 12

Ecosystem management - peat bogs

Answer 12

• A peat bog is a region of wet, spongy ground that contains decomposing vegetation.
• Undisturbed peatland is a ‘carbon sink’, meaning that it is a store of carbon dioxide.
• However, once dried, peat can be used as a fuel.
• As well as releasing thermal energy, burning peat releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• It takes many thousands of years for peat bogs to form - the preservation of existing peat bogs is therefore an important component in preventing further climate change.
• As well as being used as a fuel, peat is also important for farmers and gardeners, who mix it with soil to improve soil structure and to increase acidity.
• Peat has very favourable moisture-retaining properties when soil is dry, and prevents excess water killing roots when soil is wet.
• Although peat can store nutrients, it is not fertile in itself.
• Commercial peat extraction to supply gardeners and nursery growers is a major threat to this ecosystem.

Question 13

Ecosystem - peat

Answer 13

• Peat forms when plant material is inhibited from fully decaying by acidic and anaerobic conditions.
• This normally occurs in wet or boggy areas, and therefore peat is mainly composed of wetland vegetation including mosses, sedges, and shrubs.
• The plants that grow on peatlands, such as sphagnum mosses (Sphagnum spp.), bog cotton or cottonsedge (Eriophorum angustifolium), and heathers (typically Calluna vulgaris), have adapted to grow and thrive in wet conditions with few nutrients.
• Bogs also support a wide range of insects such as butterflies, moths, dragonflies, and damselflies.
• The lack of predators and human disturbance makes some peatlands ideal for birds to nest and bring up their chicks.
• The abundance of insects, spiders, and frogs, plus nutritious vegetation and berries, provides food for many species.
• The large areas of open ground provide ideal hunting grounds for birds of prey.

Question 14

Loss of ecosystem - peat

Answer 14

• Lowland raised bogs are one example of a peatland ecosystem.
• They are a rare and threatened habitat.
• In the UK, the area of relatively undisturbed lowland raised bog is estimated to have diminished by over 90%, from around 950 km’ to only 60 in the last 100 years.
• It is essential that the remaining areas are conserved to maintain biodiversity - their maintenance will also contribute to flood management, erosion control downstream, and carbon storage.
• Historically, the greatest decline has occurred through afforestation (the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no forest), peat extraction, and agricultural intensification, including land drainage.
• These activities have all contributed to the drying out of the bogs.

Question 15

Conserving lowland bogs
The key to conserving lowland bogs is to maintain or restore appropriate water levels. Steps which are taken to conserve areas of lowland bog include:

Answer 15

• Ensuring that the peat and vegetation of the bog surface is as undisturbed and as wet as possible. Most bogs are surrounded by ditches to allow water to run off, preventing flooding of nearby land. In restoring a bog, ditch blocking may be required for a period of time to raise the water table to the bog surface.
• Removal of seedling trees from the area. Trees have a high water requirement due to transpiration. Therefore, any tree seedling that has the potential to remove water from an area of peatland, or to reduce its ability to support bog vegetation, should be removed to maintain water levels in the area.
• Using controlled grazing to maintain the biodiversity of peatland.
  Grazing ensures a diverse wetland surface in terms of structure and species composition. This in turn provides a wide range of habitats for many rare insect species.

Question 16

• Continuing intensive land use threatens the existence of much of the remaining peatlands in the UK….

Answer 16

• Although around 10% of the UK is classified as peat bog of one form or another, around 80% of these areas are in a poor condition.
• A number of organisations are working to preserve these important ecosystems, including The Wildlife Trusts, Natural England, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB).
• It is hoped that, through the conservation work of these and other organisations, an appropriate balance can be met between our need to exploit the land, and the maintenance of a sustainable, biodiverse ecosystem.

Question 17

environmentally sensitive ecosystems.

Answer 17

• Although all ecosystems are, to some extent, fragile, some regions are less resistant to changes than others.
• For example, although mass tourism can bring economic vitality to an area, it can also bring attendant changes to an environment that are not always positive, such as the overdevelopment of a coastline.
• This level of human activity can lead to losses in the biodiversity of the region.

Question 18

In many environmentally sensitive areas the same types of management techniques are used. These include:

Answer 18

• limiting the areas tourists can visit controlling the movement of livestock introducing anti-poaching measures replanting of forests and native plants limiting hunting through quotas and seasonal bans.
  This topic looks at examples of some of the world’s environmentally sensitive ecosystems, which without control of human activities will be lost.

Question 19

The Galapagos Islands, Pacific Ocean

Answer 19

• The Galapagos is an archipelago of volcanic islands that rise up from the bed of the Pacific Ocean 1000 km west of Ecuador.
• They are of special interest because they have never been connected to the mainland.
• The original flora and fauna that reached the islands’ shores had to survive a crossing of hundreds of kilometres of ocean.
• Darwin used evidence he gained from his visits to these islands to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.

Question 20

Galapagos - Animals present

Answer 20

• The majority of land animals living on the islands are reptiles - there is only one species of land mammal, the Galapagos rice rat.
• These species arrived here by being washed away from mainland river banks, floating on rafts of vegetation.
• Over millions of years these animals, and many of the marine birds that also arrived on the islands, have adapted to their environment in isolation, resulting in many species that are unique to the islands.

Question 21

Over millions of years these animals, and many of the marine birds that also arrived on the islands, have adapted to their environment in isolation, resulting in many species that are unique to the islands.
These include:

Answer 21

• The Galapagos giant tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra), which grows to over 150 cm in length.
• The flightless cormorant (Phalacrocorax harrisi), whose reduced wings were better for fishing underwater, when flight was not needed to escape mainland predators.
• The marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), which contains the advantageous mutation, over a land iguana, of the ability to swim effectively.
  Unless they are trying to attract a mate, the iguana appears black or dark grey, this allows these ectotherms to bask in the sun and raise raise their body temperatures to approximately 36°C before swimming in the cold sea where they forage for food.
  The higher the temperature the longer they can forage.

Question 22

Plants present On the larger islands three distinct regions exist, each of which supports particular plant species. These regions are:

Answer 22

• the coastal zone, which contains salt-tolerant species such as mangrove and saltbush
• the arid zone, which contains drought-tolerant species such as cacti and the carob tree
• the humid zone, which contains dense cloud-forest. These trees
  support populations of mosses and liverworts.

Question 23

Control of human activities

Answer 23

• Until the 19th century the islands were hardly visited by humans.
• However, as a result of the whaling trade this all changed.
• The whalers disrupted the islands’ fragile ecosystems by allowing domestic animals to roam loose, chopping forests for fires to render down whale fat, and removing tens of thousands of live giant tortoises, whose meat would sustain the whalers on their long sea voyage due to their ability to survive for long periods without food or water.
• The goats they introduced have also outcompeted giant tortoises on many islands.

Question 24

The Galapagos National Park was established in 1959. Since then, measures have been taken to protect the living and non-living parts of this unique ecosystem, including:

Answer 24

• introduction of park rangers across the islands
• limiting human access to particular islands, or specific parts of islands
• controlling migration to and from the islands
• strict controls over movement of introduced animals such as pigs (the presence of these were noted by Darwin).
  It is hoped that through these and many other measures, the islands’ flora and fauna can be protected for future generations.