Chapter 8

Question 1

Thinking

Answer 1

Any mental activity or processing of information

Question 2

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 2

Involved judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent that event has been in past experiences (ex. likelihood of a plane crash)

Question 3

Base Rate

Answer 3

How common a behaviour or characteristic is in general

Question 4

Availability Heuristic

Answer 4

Estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on how easily it comes to mind - how “available” it is in our memories

Question 5

Hindsight Bias

Answer 5

Refers to the phrase, “I knew it all along!” It is the tendency to overestimate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome

Question 6

Confirmation Bias

Answer 6

The tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses or beliefs and to deny, dismiss, and distort evidence that doesn’t

Question 7

Bottom-Up Processing

Answer 7

Our brain processes only the information it receives, and constructs meaning from it slowly and surely by building up understanding through experiences

Question 8

Top-Down Processing

Answer 8

When we fill in the gaps of missing information using our experience and background knowledge

Question 9

Concepts

Answer 9

Our knowledge and ideas about objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties

Question 10

Schemas

Answer 10

Concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, and ideas relate to each other

Question 11

Linguistic Determinism

Answer 11

An extreme view on the role of language in thought suggesting that we cannot experience thought without language. No ideas can be generated without linguistic knowledge.

Question 12

Linguistic Relativity

Answer 12

The idea that characteristics of language shape our thought processes (recalling things learned in french back in french ex)

Question 13

Decision Making

Answer 13

The process of selecting among a set of alternatives

Question 14

System 1 thinking

Answer 14

Rapid and Intuitive

Question 15

System 2 thinking

Answer 15

Slow and analytical

Question 16

Framing

Answer 16

How we formulate the question about what we need to decide

Question 17

Problem Solving

Answer 17

Generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal

Question 18

Algorithms

Answer 18

Step-by-step learned procedures

Question 19

3 Main Ways of Problem Solving

Answer 19

1. Algorithms 2. Breaking things into smaller chunks 3. Solving problems based on things of similar structure

Question 20

Salience of Surface Similarities

Answer 20

Refers to how attention-grabbing something is. We tend to focus on surface level properties of a problem. Ignoring the surface features of a problem and focusing on the underlying reasoning needed to solve it can be challenging.

Question 21

Mental Sets

Answer 21

Once you find a workable solution that’s dependable, we often get stuck in that solution mode; we have trouble generating alternatives of “thinking outside the box”

Question 22

Functional Fixedness

Answer 22

Occurs when we experience difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another

Question 23

Language

Answer 23

A system of communication that combines symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning. It serves the transmission of information and key social and emotional functions

Question 24

Phonemes and how many does English have?

Answer 24

The most basic sound of language (40-45)

Question 25

Morphemes

Answer 25

The smallest unit of meaningful speech. They convey meaning derived from words and sentences called semantics (ex. re, ish)

Question 26

Syntax

Answer 26

The grammatical rules that govern how we compose words into meaningful strings

Question 27

Extralinguistic information

Answer 27

Elements of communication that aren't part of the content of language but are crucial to interpreting its meaning, such as facial expressions and tone of voice

Question 28

Dialects

Answer 28

Variations of the same language used by groups of people from specific geographic areas, social groups, or ethnic backgrounds

Question 29

Babbling

Answer 29

Any intentional vocalization (sounds other than crying, burping, sighing, and laughing) that lacks specific meaning

Question 30

One-Word Stage

Answer 30

When babies use individual words to convey entire thoughts

Question 31

Sign Language

Answer 31

A type of language developed by members of communities with hearing loss that allows them to use visual rather than auditory communications

Question 32

Bilingual

Answer 32

Knowing a second language

Question 33

Metalinguistic

Answer 33

Awareness of how language is structures and used

Question 34

Critical Period

Answer 34

Age of exposure to language to discover whether such exposure must occur during a specific time window for language to be learned

Question 35

Homesign

Answer 35

Many children with hearing loss invent their own signs, even when not instructed in sign language

Question 36

Generative

Answer 36

Language isn't just a set of predefined setences that we can pull out and apply in appropriate contexts. It's a system that allows us to create an infinite number of sentences, new statements, thoughts, and ideas never previously uttered.

Question 37

Nativist

Answer 37

Children come into the world with some basic knowledge of how language works

Question 38

Language acquisition device

Answer 38

Humans possess a specific language "organ" in the brain that houses these rules

Question 39

Social Pragmatics

Answer 39

Suggests that specific aspects of the social environment structure language learning

Question 40

Whole Word Recognition

Answer 40

Recognizing words when they see them printed on a page. Without this skill, reading can't become automatic

Question 41

Phonetic Decomposition (or phonics)

Answer 41

A strategy to read new words that involves sounding out words by figuring out the correspondences between printed letters and sounds.