1
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Social Psychology
A
The study of how people influence others behaviour, beliefs, and attitude - for good and bad.
2
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Social Psychology
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The study of how people influence others behaviour, beliefs, and attitude - for good and bad.
3
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Need-to-Belong Theory
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Humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connections. We seek out social bonds when we can and suffer negative psychological and physical consequences when we can’t.
4
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Upward Social Comparison
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We compare ourselves with people who seem Superior to us in some way.
5
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Downward Social Comparison
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We compare ourselves with others who seem inferior to us in some way.
6
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Mass Hysteria
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A contagious outbreak of irrational behavior that spreads much like a flu epidemic.
7
Q
Collective Decisions
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When many people simultaneously come to be convinced of bizarre things that are false.
8
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Urban Legends
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False stories that have been repeated so many times that people believe them to be true.
9
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Attributions
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Assigning causes to behavior some are internal and others are external.
10
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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Refers to the tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences on others behavior.
11
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Dispositional Influences
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Enduring characteristics such as personality traits, attitudes and intelligence.
12
Q
Conformity
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Refers to the tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure.
13
Q
Unamity
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If all confederates gave the wrong answer, the participant was more likely to conform. If one Confederate gave the correct response, the level of Conformity plummeted by ¾.
14
Q
Difference in the Wrong Answer
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Knowing that someone else in the group deferred from the majority, even if that person held a different view from the participant, made the participant less likely to conform.
15
Q
Size
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The size of the majority made a difference, but only up to about five or six confederates. People were no more likely to conform in a group of 10 than in a group of five.
16
Q
Deindividualization
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The tendency of people to engage in atypical behavior when stripped of their usual identities.
17
Q
Group Think
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An emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking.
18
Q
Example of an illusion of the groups invulnerability
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We can’t possibly fail
19
Q
An illusion of the groups unanimity
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Obviously, we all agree
20
Q
An unquestioned belief in the group’s moral correctness
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We know we’re on the right side
21
Q
Conformity pressure
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pressure on group members to go along with everything elseDon’t rock the boat
22
Q
Stereotyping out of the group - a caricaturing of the enemy
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They’re all morons
23
Q
Self-censorship - the tendency of group members to keep their mouths shut even when they have doubts
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I suspect the group’s leaders idea is stupid but I’d better not say anything
24
Q
Mindguards - self-appointed individuals whose job is to stifle disagreement
A
Oh, you think you know better than the rest of us?
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Cults
Groups that exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause.
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Inoculation Effect
The best way to immunize people against an undesirable belief is to first gently introduce them to reasons why this belief seems to be correct, which gives them the chance to generate their own counter-arguments against these reasons.
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Obedience
When we take our marching orders from people who are above us in the hierarchy of authority, such as a teacher, parent, or boss.
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Prosocial Behaviour
Behaviour intended to help others.
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Bystander Effect
Bystanders in emergencies typically want to intervene, but often find themselves frozen, seemingly helpless to help.
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Pluralistic Ignorance
The error of assuming that no one in the group perceives things as we do.
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Diffusion of Responsibility
The more people present at an emergency, the less each person feels responsible for the negative consequences of not helping.
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Social Loafing
A phenomenon in which people slack off in groups.
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Altruism
Helping others for unselfish reasons.
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Enlightenment Effect
Learning about psychological research can change real-world behaviour for the better.
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Aggression
Behaviour intended to harm others, either verbally or physically.
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Interpersonal Provocation
We’re especially likely to strike out aggressively against those who have provoked us.
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Frustration
We’re especially likely to behave aggressively when frustrated - that is, thwarted from reaching a goal.
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Media Influences
Watching media violence increases the odds of violence through observational learning.
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Aggressive Cues
External cues associated with violence, such as guns and knives, can serve as discriminative stimuli for aggression, making us more likely to act violently in response to provocation.
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Arousal
When our autonomic nervous systems hype us, we may mistakenly attribute this arousal to anger, leading us to act aggressively.
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Alcohol and Other Drugs
Certain substances can disinhibit our brain’s prefrontal cortex, lowering our inhibitions toward behaving violently.
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Temperature
Rates of violent crime in different regions of the United States mirror the average temperatures in these regions.
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Relational Aggression
More common in girls than boys is a form of indirect aggression marked by spreading rumours, gossiping, social exclusions, and nonverbal putdowns for the purposes of interpersonal manipulation.
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Culture of Honour
A social norm of defending one’s reputation in the face of perceived insults.
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Attitude
A belief that includes an emotional component.
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Recognition Heuristic
Our experiences shape our attitudes and make us more likely to believe something we’ve heard many times.
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Religiosity
The depth of our religious convictions.
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Cognitive Dissonance
An influential model of attitude change. Occurs when we alter our attitudes because we experience an unpleasant state of tension called cognitive dissonance - between two or more conflicting thoughts.
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Self-Perception Theory
Proposes that we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviours.
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Impression Management Theory
Proposes that we don’t really change our attitudes in cognitive dissonance studies; we only tell the experimenters we have.
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The Central Route
Leads us to evaluate the merits of persuasive arguments carefully and thoughtfully.
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The Peripheral Route
Leads us to respond to persuasive arguments on the basis of snap judgments.
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Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Following on the heels of cognitive dissonance theory, this technique suggests that we start with a small request before making a bigger one.
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Door-in-the-Face Technique
Alternatively, we can start with a large request, before asking for a small one.
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Lowball Technique
The seller of a product starts by quoting a price well below the actual sales price. Once the buyer agrees to purchase the product, the seller mentions all of the desirable or needed “add-ons” that come along with the product.
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But-you-are-Free
One easy but powerful means of getting people to agree to requests is giving them the sense that they’re free to choose whether to perform the act.
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Implicit Egotism Effect
The finding that we’re more positively disposed toward people, places, or things that resemble us - across many domains.
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Name-Letter Effect
We’re more likely than chance would predict to select people whose names contain the first letters of our first or last names.
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Creation of a phantom goal
Capitalize on desire to accomplish unrealistic objectives
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Vivid Testimonials
Learn about someone else's personal experience
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Manufacturing Source Credibility
We're more likely to believe sources that we judge to be trustworthy or legitimate
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Scarcity Heuristic
Something that's rare must be especially valuable
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Consensus heuristic
If most people believe that something works, it must work
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The natural commonplace
A widely help belief that natural things are good
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The Goddess-within commonplace
A widely held belief that we all possess a hidden mystical side that traditional Western science neglects or denies
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Prejudice
To prejudge something negatively - to arrive at an unfavourable conclusion before we’ve evaluated all the evidence.
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Stereotype
A belief - positive or negative - about a group’s characteristics that we apply to most members of that group.
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Ultimate Attribution Error
The mistake of attributing the negative behaviour of entire groups to their dispositions.
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Adaptive Conservatism
Better safe than sorry.
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In-group Bias
The tendency to favour individuals inside our group relative to members outside our group.
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Out-group Homogeneity
The tendency to view all people outside of our group as highly similar.
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Discrimination
The act of treating members of out-groups differently from members of in-groups.
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Scapegoat Hypothesis
Prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes.
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Just-World Hypothesis
Implies that many of us have a deep-seated need to perceive the world as fair - to believe that all things happen for a reason.
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Extrinsic Religiosity
People with high levels view religion as a means to an end, such as obtaining friends or social support, tend to have high levels of prejudice.
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Intrinsic Religiosity
or whom religion is a deeply ingrained part of their belief system - tend to have equal or lower levels of prejudice than nonreligious people.
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Explicit Prejudice
Prejudice that we are aware of.
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Implicit Prejudice
Prejudice that we are unaware of
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Jigsaw Classrooms
Teachers assign children separate tasks that need to be fitted together to complete a project. The students then cooperate to assemble the pieces into an integrated lesson.
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Psychotherapy
Psychological intervention designed to help people resolve emotional, behavioural, and interpersonal problems and improve the quality of their lives.
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Paraprofessionals
Helpers who have no formal professional training, often provide psychological services in such settings as crisis intervention centres and other social service agencies.
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Psychodynamic Therapies
Treatments inspired by classical psychoanalysis and influenced by Freud’s techniques. It is less costly, briefer (weeks or months or open-ended) and involves meeting only once or twice per week.
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Insight Therapies
Psychodynamic therapies and the humanistic therapies have the same goal to cultivate insight - that is, expanded awareness.
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Humanistic Therapies
A variety of approaches rooted in the humanistic perspective on personality. Therapies within this orientation share an emphasis on insight, self-actualization, and the belief that human nature is basically positive. They strive to understand their client’s inner worlds through empathy and focus on the client's thoughts and feelings in the present moment.
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Psychoanalysis
Its goal is to decrease guilt and frustration and make the unconscious conscious by bringing to awareness previously repressed impulses, conflicts, and memories.
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Free Association
As clients lie on a couch in a comfortable position, therapists instruct them to say whatever thoughts come to mind, no matter how meaningless or nonsensical they might seem. Clients are permitted to express themselves without censorship.
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Interpretation
From the free association, analysts form hypotheses regarding the origin of the client’s difficulties and share them with the client as the therapeutic relationship evolves. They form interpretations - explanations - of the unconscious bases of a client’s dreams, emotions, and behavior.
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Dream Analysis
The therapist’s task is to interpret the relation of the dream to the client’s waking life and the dream’s symbolic significance.
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Resistance
They to avoid further confrontation.
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Transference
They project intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from their past onto the therapist.
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Working Through
Therapists help clients work through, or process, their problems.
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Participant Observer
Analyst’s proper role. Through their ongoing observations, the analyst discovers and communicates to clients their unrealistic attitudes and behaviours in everyday life.
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Interpersonal Therapy
Originally a treatment for depression, IPT is a short-term intervention designed to strengthen people’s social skills and assist them in coping with interpersonal problems, conflicts, and life transitions.
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Person-centered Therapy
Therapists don't tell clients how to solve their problems, and clients can use therapy hours however they choose.
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Motivational Interviewing
Two session procedure recognizes that many clients are ambivalent about changing long-standing behaviors and is geared toward clarifying and bringing forth their reason for changing - and not changing - their lives.
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Gestalt Therapy
People with psychological difficulties are “incomplete gestalts” because they've been excluded from their awareness experiences and aspects of their personalities that trigger anxiety. Gestalt therapists aim to integrate and sometimes opposing aspects of clients personalities into a unified sense of self.
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Two Chair Technique
Gestalt therapists ask clients to move from chair to chair, creating a dialogue with two conflicting aspects of their personalities.
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Group Therapy
Treating more than one person at a time (3 to as many as 20 people) group therapy is efficient, time saving, and less costly than individual treatments and span all major schools of psychotherapy.
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Self-help Groups
To share a similar problem; often they don't include a professional mental health specialist.
100
Alcoholics Anonymous
Founded in 1933 and is now the largest organization for treating people with alcoholism, with more than 2.1 million members worldwide.
101
Relapse Prevention
Treatment assumes that many people with alcoholism will at some point experience a lapse, or slip, and resume drinking. RP teaches people to not feel ashamed, guilty, or discouraged when they lapse.
102
Abstinence Violation Effect
Once someone slips up, they figure, "Well, I guess I'm back to drinking again," and go back to drinking at high levels.
103
Family Therapy
The patient or the focus of treatment isn't one person, but rather the family unit itself. Family therapists therefore focus on interactions among family members.
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Strategic Family Interventions
Designed to remove barriers to effective communication.
105
Directives
Shift how family members solve problems and interact.
106
Paradoxical Requests
Many of us associate with the concept of “reverse psychology”
107
Structural Family Therapy
Therapists actively immerse themselves in the everyday activities of the family to make changes and how they arrange and organize interactions.
108
Behavioural Therapists
Focus on the specific behaviours that lead the client to seek therapy and the current variables that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
109
Ecological Momentary Assessment
Used to a) increase clients’ awareness of the frequency and circumstances associated with a behaviour they hope to change, such as pathological alcohol use, and b) to assist therapists with assessment and treatment planning.
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Systematic Desensitization
An example of how behavioral therapists apply learning principles to treatment. Used to help clients manage phobias by gradually exposing clients to anxiety-producing situations through the use of imagined scenes.
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Anxiety Hierarchy
A “ladder” of situations that climbs from least to most anxiety provoking.
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Exposure Therapy
A class of procedures that confronts clients with what they fear with the goal of reducing this fear.
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Reciprocal Inhibition
Clients can’t experience two conflicting responses simultaneously.
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Counter Conditioning
Pairing incompatible relaxation response with anxiety, we condition a more adaptive response to anxiety-arousing stimuli.
115
Vivo
Meaning real life. SD can occur in vivo when it involves gradual exposure to what the client actually fears, rather than imagining the anxiety-provoking situation.
116
Dismantling
Researchers can evaluate many therapeutic procedures by isolating the effects of each component and comparing these effects with that of the full treatment package.
117
Flooding Therapists
Jump right to the top of the anxiety hierarchy and expose clients to images of the stimuli they fear the most of prolonged periods, often for an hour or even several hours.
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Response Prevention
Therapists prevent clients from performing their typical avoidance behaviours.
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Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
With high-tech equipment providing a “virtually life-like” experience of fear provoking situations, therapists can treat many anxiety-related conditions.
120
Thought Field Therapy
The client thinks of a distressing problem while the therapist taps specific points on their body in a predetermined order.
121
Participant Modelling
A technique in which the therapist models a calm encounter with the client’s feared object of situation, and then guides the client through the steps of the encounter until they can cope unassisted.
122
Asserting Training
To facilitate the expression of thoughts and feelings in a forthright and socially appropriate manner and to ensure that clients aren’t taken advantage of, ignored, or denied their legitimate rights.
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Behavioural Rehearsal
Client engages in role-playing with a therapist to learn and practise new skills.
124
Token Economy
Widely used in treatment programs in institutional and residential settings, as well as in the home. Certain behaviours, like helping others, are consistently rewarded with tokens that clients can later exchange for more tangible rewards. Whereas other behaviours, like screaming are ignored or punished.
125
Aversion Therapy
Uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviours.
126
Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies
Beliefs play the central role in our feelings and behaviours.
127
Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy
A prime example of cognitive behavioural approach because of its cognitive emphasis on changing how we think, but it also focuses on changing how we act.
128
Cognitive Therapy
Emphasizes identifying and modifying distorted thoughts and long-held negative core beliefs.
129
Stress Inoculation Training
Therapists teach clients to prepare for and cope with future stressful life events by inoculating clients against upcoming stress by getting them to anticipate it and develop cognitive skills to minimize its harm.
130
Self-Statements
Their ongoing mental dialogue.
131
Third-Wave Therapies
Represent a shift from both the first (behavioural) and the second (cognitive) waves of the cognitive-behavioural tradition. Third wave therapists embrace a different goal: to assist clients with accepting all aspects of their experience - thoughts, feelings, memories, and physical sensations - that they have avoided.
132
Dialectic
Avoiding negative consequences
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Dialectic Behavioural Therapy
Encourages clients to accept their intense emotions while actively attempting to cope with these emotions by making changes in their lives.
134
Eclectice Approaches
Treatments that integrate techniques and theories from more than one existing approach.
135
Behavioural Activation
Getting clients, such as those who are depressed, to participate in reinforcing activities - is a key component of many third wave and cognitive behavioural approaches and is emerging as a key element of successful psychotherapy.
136
Meta-Analysis
A statistical method that helps researchers interpret large bodies of psychological literature.
137
Scared Straight
Adolescents at risk for criminal Behavior are coupled in seminars with prison inmates
Risks: increase risk for conduct disorder
138
Coercive Restraint
Includes rebirthing and being held down by the therapist.
Risks: Injury, suffocation, death
139
Grief Counselling
Additional or excessive grief counselling for those adequately coping with their grief
Risks: Increase in depression
140
Youth Interrogations
Children and adolescents are continually questioned about possible abuse
Risks: False accusations of child abuse
141
Bibliotherapy
The use of self-help books.
142
Nonspecific Factors
Those that cut across many or most therapies are responsible for improvement across diverse treatments.
143
Specific Factors
Factors that characterize only certain therapies: they include exposure, challenging irrational beliefs, and social skills training.
144
Scientist Practitioner Gap
Refers to the sharp cleft between psychologists who view Psychotherapy as more an art than a science and those who believe that clinical practice should primarily reflect well replicated scientific findings.
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146
Empirically Supported Treatments
Interventions for specific disorders backed by high quality scientific evidence derived from controlled studies.
147
Psychopharmacology
The use of medications to treat psychological problems.
148
Polyphramacy
Prescribing many medications - sometimes 5 or more - at the same time.
149
Electroconvulsive Therapy
During this procedure, small electric currents pass through the brain, intentionally causing a brief seizure. This procedure is done under general anesthesia.
150
Psychosurgery
Brain surgery to treat psychological disorder, is the most radical and controversial of all biomedical treatments.
151
Clinicians Illusion
Because practicing psychologists tend to see only those people who react emotionally to stress - after all, the healthy people don’t seek out help - they probably overestimate most people’s fragility and underestimate their resilience.
152
Stress
A type of response - consists of the tension, discomfort, or physical symptoms that arise when a situation, called a stressor, strains our ability to cope effectively
153
Stressor
A stimulus in the environment.
154
Traumatic Event
A stressor that’s so severe it can produce long-term psychological or health consequences.
155
Stressors as Stimuli
An approach that focuses on identifying different types of stressful events, ranging from job loss to combat.
156
Stress as a Transaction
People’s varied reactions to the same event suggest that we can view stress as a translation between people and their environments. Researchers examine how people interpret and cope with stressful events.
157
Primary Appraisal
When we first decide whether the event is harmful.
158
Second Appraisal
About how well we can cope with an event.
159
Problem-Focused Coping
A coping strategy in which we tackle life’s challenges head on.
160
Emotion-Focused Coping
A coping strategy in which we try to place a positive spin on our feelings or predicaments and engage in behaviours to reduce painful emotions.
161
Stress as a Response
They assess people’s psychological and physical reactions to stressful circumstances.
162
Corticosteroids
Hormones that activate the body and prepare us for stressful circumstances.
163
Hassles
Minor nuisances as taxing as the monumental events that shake the foundations of our world.
164
General Adaptation Syndrome and the stages
Humans are equipped with a sensitive physiology that responds to stressful circumstances by kicking us into high gear. This is the pattern of responding to stress. Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
165
Alarm Reaction
Involves the discharge in the stress hormone adrenalin, and physical symptoms of anxiety.
166
Emotional Brain
The seat of anxiety within the limbic system - includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus.
167
Fight-or-Flight Response
A set of physiological and psychological reactions that mobilize us to either confront or leave a threatening situation.
168
Resistance
After the initial rush of stress hormones, we adapt to the stressor and find ways to cope with it.
169
Exhaustion
If our personal resources are limited and we lack good coping measures, our resistance may ultimately break down, causing our levels of activation to bottom out.
170
Eustress
Based on the Greek work eu meaning “good,” to distinguish it from distress or “bad” stress. Events that are challenging, yet not overwhelming, such as competing in an athletic event or giving a speech, can create “positive stress” and provide opportunities for personal growth. Short-term stress that lasts minutes to hours can also trigger a healthy immune response to help us fend off physical ailments.
171
Tend and Befriend
Describes a common pattern of reacting to stress among females, although some males display it, too. In times of stress, females generally rely on their social contacts and nurturing abilities - they tend to those around them and to themselves - more than males do.
172
Social Support
Encompasses interpersonal relations with people, groups, and the larger community. Provides us with emotional comfort, financial assistance, and information to make decisions, solve problems, and contend with stressful situations.
173
Behavioural Control
The ability to step up and do something to reduce the impact of a stressful situation or prevent its recurrence.
174
Cognitive Control
The ability to cognitively restructure or think differently about negative emotions that arise in response to stress-provoking events.
175
Decisional Control
The ability to choose among alternative courses of action.
176
Proactive Coping
When we anticipate stressful situations and take steps to prevent or minimize difficulties before they arise.
176
Informational Control
The ability to acquire information about stressful events.
177
Emotional Control
The ability to suppress and express emotions.
178
Crisis Debriefing or Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
Designed to ward off PTSD among people exposed to trauma. It is a single-session procedure, typically conducted in groups, that usually lasts three to four hours.
179
Hardiness
People view change as a challenge rather than a threat, are committed to their life and work, and believe that they can control events.
180
Spirituality
The search for the sacred, which may or may not extend to belief in God.
181
Immune System
Our body’s defence against invading bacteria, viruses, and other potentially illness-producing organisms and substances.
182
Antigens
Are the first shield from these foreign invaders. The skin, which blocks the entry of many disease-producing organisms.
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Pathogens
Disease-producing organisms.
184
Phagocytes and Lymphocytes (T and B)
Two types of specialized white blood cells and manufactured in the marrow of our bones.
185
Macrophages
Wander through the body as scavengers, destroying remaining antigens and dead tissue.
186
T Cells
Move through the body and attach to proteins on the surface of virus and cancer infected cells, popping them like balloons.
187
B Cells
Produce proteins called antibodies, which stick to the surface of invaders, slow their progress, and attract other proteins that destroy the foreign organisms.
188
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
An incurable yet often treatable condition in which the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks and damages the immune system.
189
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of the relationship between the immune system and the central nervous system.
190
Peptic Ulcer
An inflamed area in the gastrointestinal tract that can cause pain, nausea, and loss of appetite.
191
Psychophysiological
Authentic illnesses like ulcers in which emotions and stress contribute to, maintain, or aggravate physical conditions.
192
Biopsychosocial Perspective
Proposes that most medical conditions are neither all physical nor all psychological.
193
Coronary Heart Disease
Complete or partial blockage of the arteries that provide oxygen to the heart and is the number one cause of death and disability in the US.
194
Type A Personality
Competitive, hard driving, ambitious, and impatient.
195
Health Psychology
AKA behavioural medicine, is a rapidly growing field that has contributed to our understanding of the influences of stress and other psychological factors on physical disorders.
196
Heavy Episodic Drinking (AKA Binge Drinking)
Defined as drinking 5 or more drink on one occasion for males or 4 or more drinks on one occasion for females - are associated with increases in many different types of cancer, serious and sometimes fatal liver problems, pregnancy complications, and brain shrinkage and other neurological problems.
197
Crash Diets
Diets in which people severely restrict calories (often down to 1000 calories per day for several weeks) - aren’t likely to result in long-term weight loss and are unhealthy.
198
Aerobic Exercises
Exercise that promotes the use of oxygen in the body, can lower blood pressure and risk for CHD, improve lung functions, relieve the symptoms of arthritis, decrease diabetes risk, and cut the risk of breast and colon cancer.
199
Alternative Medicine
Refers to health care practices and products used in place of conventional medicine.
200
Complementary Medicine
Refers to products and practices that are used together with conventional medicine.
201
Natural Commonplace
The false belief that just because it is natural doesn't mean that it’s necessarily safe or healthy for us.
202
Subluxations
Irregularities in the alignment of the spin that prevent the nervous and immune systems from functioning properly.
203
Biofeedback
Feedback by a device that provides almost an immediate output of biological functions.
204
Meditation
Refers to a variety of practices that train attention and awareness.
205
Concentrative Meditation
The goal is to focus attention on a single thing, for example, one’s breath.
206
Mantra
An internal sound.
207
Awareness Meditation
Attention flows freely and examines whatever comes to mind.
208
Energy Medicines
Based on the idea that disruptions in our body’s energy field can be mapped and treated.
209
Acupuncture
Practitioners insert thin needles into specific points in the body.
210
Psych 1160
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