1
Q
What is the prenatal stage of development?
A
Conception to birth
2
Q
What age range does infancy and toddlerhood cover?
A
Birth to 2 years
3
Q
What is the age range for early childhood?
A
2 to 6 years
4
Q
Define middle childhood.
A
6 to 11 years
5
Q
What age range does adolescence cover?
A
11 to 18 years
6
Q
What does continuous development imply?
A
Development is a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills
7
Q
Define discontinuous development.
A
Development as a process in which new ways of understanding emerge at specific times
8
Q
What is meant by one course vs. multiple courses in development?
A
One normative developmental process with stages vs. multiple normative processes depending on contexts
9
Q
What does the nature vs. nurture debate focus on?
A
The influence of genetics (nature) versus environment (nurture) on development
10
Q
Who proposed the idea of children as a ‘blank slate’?
A
LOCKE
11
Q
What concept did ROUSSEAU introduce regarding children?
A
Children are ‘noble savages’ with innate good/evil
12
Q
What did DARWIN contribute to child development studies?
A
The concept of evolution and scientific study
13
Q
What approach did HALL and GESELL use in their studies?
A
Normative approach measuring behaviors of large groups
14
Q
What is the focus of the psychoanalytic perspective?
A
Personality development through stages confronting conflicts
15
Q
What is the psychosexual theory associated with?
A
FREUD’s emphasis on parental management of drives in early life
16
Q
List the phases of psychosexual development according to FREUD.
A
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latency
- Genital
17
Q
What does Erikson’s psychosocial theory emphasize?
A
Development of unique personality and skills at each stage
18
Q
What does behaviorism focus on?
A
Directly observable events: stimuli and responses
19
Q
Who is associated with classical conditioning?
A
PAVLOV
20
Q
What is operant conditioning, and who proposed it?
A
A learning process through rewards and punishments proposed by SKINNER
21
Q
What does Bandura’s social learning theory emphasize?
A
Modeling as a major means of acquiring new responses
22
Q
What does the cognitive-developmental theory by PIAGET state?
A
Children actively construct knowledge through four stages
23
Q
List the four stages of cognitive development according to PIAGET.
A
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
24
Q
What is the information processing perspective?
A
Mind as a complex symbol-manipulating system
25
What does developmental cognitive neuroscience study?
Relationship between brain changes and cognitive processing
26
What is the focus of ethology?
Adaptive value and evolutionary history of behavior
27
What does VYGOTSKY's sociocultural theory focus on?
Transmission of culture through social interaction
28
Define Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.
Child develops within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple layers of environment
29
What is the microsystem in ecological systems theory?
Innermost level consisting of activities and interaction patterns in immediate surroundings
30
What does the mesosystem represent?
Connections between children’s microsystems
31
Define exosystem.
Social settings that do not contain children but affect their experiences
32
What is the macrosystem in ecological systems theory?
Outermost level consisting of cultural values, laws, and customs
33
What does the chronosystem refer to?
Temporal changes in environments affecting development
34
What is the dynamic systems perspective?
Integrated system of mind, body, and environment guiding skill mastery
35
What is naturalistic observation?
Gathering data in everyday environments to see behaviors directly
36
What is a structured observation?
Observations in labs where all participants have equal opportunity to display behavior
37
Define clinical interview.
Self-report method that is flexible and open-ended
38
What is a structured interview?
Self-report where each participant is asked the same questions in the same way
39
What does the clinical/case study method aim to achieve?
Obtain a complete picture of an individual’s psychological functioning
40
What is ethnography?
Comparisons of cultures through self-report and observational methods
41
What does correlational design examine?
Relationships between variables in natural life circumstances
42
What does experimental design permit?
Inferences about cause and effect
43
Define longitudinal design.
Identifies common patterns and individual differences in development over time
44
What are cohort effects?
Difficulty generalizing to children developing under different historical conditions
45
What is cross-sectional design?
More efficient comparison of age-group averages, vulnerable to cohort effects
46
What do sequential designs determine?
Whether cohort effects are operating by comparing participants of the same age born in different years
47
What is microgenetic design?
Tracks mastery of a novel task over closely spaced sessions
48
What is a phenotype?
Observable characteristics
49
Define genotype.
Genetic components from parents
50
What are chromosomes?
Rodlike structures in the cell nucleus containing genes
51
What are protein-coding genes?
Genes that directly affect the body's characteristics
52
What are gametes?
Sex cells resulting from cell division (meiosis)
53
What does meiosis ensure?
Each individual receives a unique set of genes from each parent
54
What is a zygote?
The union of sperm and ovum
55
What are fraternal/dizygotic twins?
Two ova released and fertilized separately
56
What are identical/monozygotic twins?
Zygote division into two during early stages of cell duplication
57
What is dominant-recessive inheritance?
Traits controlled by single genes where one gene is dominant
58
What is incomplete-dominance?
Traits resulting from a combination of both alleles
59
What is X-linked inheritance?
Recessive disorders on the X chromosome, more likely affecting males
60
Define genomic imprinting.
Alleles marked to silence one member and express the other
61
What is a mutation?
Harmful genes arising spontaneously or from environmental agents
62
What is polygenic inheritance?
Traits varying on a continuum from many genes' effects
63
What does socioeconomic status affect?
Family functioning and children's development
64
How do higher-SES families typically interact with children?
Engage in warm, verbally stimulating interaction
65
What is familism?
Core Hispanic value prioritizing family needs over individual concerns
66
What is behavioral genetics?
Examines contributions of nature and nurture to diversity in traits
67
What are heritability estimates?
Quantification of genetic influences on complex traits
68
What is gene-environment interaction?
Heredity influences responsiveness to the environment
69
What is niche-picking?
Children choosing environments that complement their heredity
70
What is epigenesis?
Development as complex, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and environment
71
What occurs during the dilation and effacement of the cervix?
Uterine contractions increase in strength and frequency, widening and thinning the cervix
72
What happens in the second stage of childbirth?
The mother feels an urge to push the baby through the birth canal
73
What is the final stage of childbirth?
Delivery of the placenta
74
What is the Apgar Scale used for?
Measures baby’s physical condition at birth
75
What is natural childbirth?
Expectant mother attends classes to learn about labor and delivery
76
What are fetal monitors used for?
To save babies at risk for anoxia
77
What is low birth weight associated with?
Neonatal and infant mortality and developmental problems
78
What are reflexes in newborns?
Organized patterns of behavior with survival value
79
How much of their sleep do babies spend in REM sleep?
50%
80
What is the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale?
Assesses a newborn's behavior in various domains
81
What is the cephalocaudal growth pattern?
Growth pattern where the head develops more rapidly than the lower body
82
Define proximodistal growth pattern.
Growth that proceeds from the center of the body outward
83
What is synaptic pruning?
Loss of synapses in neurons that are seldom selected
84
What role do glial cells play in brain development?
Myelinate and multiply rapidly, contributing to brain weight
85
What is brain plasticity?
Ability of the brain to reorganize functions of damaged areas
86
What does classical conditioning help infants do?
Associate events that usually occur together
87
Define operant conditioning.
Learning process where behavior is followed by reinforcers or punishment
88
What is the dynamic systems theory of motor development?
Children acquire motor skills by combining existing skills into complex systems
89
What is the pincer grasp?
Well-coordinated grasp using thumb and index finger
90
What is intermodal perception?
Combining information from multiple sensory modalities
91
What are affordances?
Action possibilities that a situation offers to an individual
92
What are schemes according to Piaget?
Organized ways of making sense of experience that change with age
93
What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?
Interpreting the external world in terms of current schemes
94
What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?
Creating new schemes and adjusting old ones for better environmental fit
95
What is object permanence?
Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
96
What is deferred imitation?
Ability to remember and copy behavior of models not present
97
What is a criticism of Piaget's theory?
Infants display understandings earlier than he believed
98
What is a not-B search error?
Error where after reaching several times for an object at one hiding place, and then seeing it moved to a second hiding place still search for it in the first hiding place.
99
Define mental representation.
Internal depiction of information that the mind can manipulate.
100
What is deferred imitation?
Ability to remember and copy the behaviour of models who are not present.
101
What method reveals that infants display a variety of understandings earlier than Piaget believed?
Violation of expectation method.
102
What does heightened attention to an unexpected event in infants suggest?
Infant is surprised by a deviation from physical reality and is aware of that aspect of the physical world.
103
What is the capacity for displaced reference?
Use of words to cue mental images of things not physically present, emerging around the first birthday.
104
What is the video deficit effect?
Poorer performance on tasks after watching a video compared to watching a live demonstration, declines around 2 ½ years.
105
What does the core knowledge perspective suggest?
Infants are born with core domains of thought, including physical, psychological, linguistic, and numerical knowledge.
106
What is the sensory store?
Part of cognitive system where sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly.
107
Define short-term memory store.
Part of the cognitive system where attended-to information is retained briefly for active work.
108
What is the long-term memory store?
The largest storage area in the cognitive system, containing our permanent knowledge base.
109
What is the role of the central executive in the cognitive system?
Directs the flow of information, coordinating incoming info with info already in the system.
110
What is working memory?
Number of items that can be briefly held in mind while engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items.
111
What are automatic processes in cognitive activities?
Cognitive activities that are well-learned, requiring no space in working memory.
112
What does executive function include?
Inhibition of impulses, flexible thinking, coordination of information in working memory, and planning.
113
True or False: Recall and recognition can occur by the middle of the first year.
True.
114
Define infantile amnesia.
Inability of most people to remember events that happened to them before age 3.
115
What is autobiographical memory?
Long-lasting representations of personally meaningful one-time events from recent and distant past.
116
What is the zone of proximal development according to Vygotsky?
Range of tasks too difficult for a child to do alone but can be done with help from skilled partners.
117
What does the mental testing approach involve?
IQ testing that compares an individual’s performance with a standardization of same-age individuals.
118
What are developmental quotients?
Scores on infant tests that predict later intelligence based on perceptual and motor responses.
119
What predicts better language and IQ scores in children?
Organized, stimulating home environment and parental affection, involvement, and encouragement.
120
What is developmentally appropriate practice?
Specifies program characteristics that meet young children’s developmental needs in child care.
121
What is the language acquisition device according to Chomsky?
Innate system containing a universal grammar underlying all languages.
122
At what age do infants typically begin cooing?
2 months.
123
At what age do infants typically begin babbling?
6 months.
124
What is joint attention?
When child and caregiver attend to the same object or event as the caregiver labels what the child sees.
125
What are the basic emotions developed from 0-6 months?
Joy, anger, sadness, fear, and surprise.
126
What is social referencing?
Infants’ ability to detect meaning of emotional expressions improves between 8-10 months.
127
What are self-conscious emotions?
Guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride that result from adult instruction.
128
Define emotional self-regulation.
Emerges as prefrontal cortex functions more effectively with caregiver assistance in adjusting emotional reactions.
129
What characterizes an easy child?
Establishment of regular routines, general cheerfulness, and easy adaptation to new experiences.
130
What characterizes a difficult child?
Irregular daily routines, slow acceptance of new experiences, and negative reactions.
131
What is effortful control?
Self-regulatory dimension of temperament involving voluntary suppression of a dominant response.
132
What is the goodness of fit model?
Parenting practices that fit well with the child’s temperament help achieve adaptive functioning.
133
What does the ethological theory of attachment recognize?
Infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival.
134
What indicates a true attachment bond in infants?
Separation anxiety and use of the caregiver as a secure base.
135
Define internal working model.
Set of expectations derived from early caregiving experiences about attachment figures and support.
136
What characterizes secure attachment?
Infants use parent as a secure base, may be distressed by separation, and are easily comforted upon return.
137
What characterizes insecure-avoidant attachment?
Infants are unresponsive to the parent when present and are not distressed by separation.
138
What characterizes insecure-resistant attachment?
Infants seek closeness before departure, are distressed when leaving, and combine clinginess with angry behavior.
139
What is disorganized attachment?
Greatest insecurity; infants show confused contradictory behaviors upon reunion with parents.
140
What are scale errors?
Toddler’s attempts to do things their body size makes impossible, like trying to wear doll's clothes.
141
At what age do children develop a categorical self?
Between 18-30 months.
142
At what age does compliance emerge in children?
Between 12-18 months.
Alicia - FRHD*2270
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