1
Q
What are the three basic issues in developmental theories?
A
- Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development: gradual (continuous) improvements in the same skills vs. sudden changes (discontinuous) in stages
- Once Course or Many?: same for all (universal) vs. contextual based (multiple courses) development for children
- Nature vs. Nurture: heredity, genetics, biology (nature) vs enviornment, upbringing, experiences (nurture)
2
Q
What was believed of child development during the Reformation?
A
- Puritans believed in original sin: children born evil and stubborn
- Harsh child-rearing: stiff clothing, physical punishment
- Love and affection prevented extreme practices
3
Q
What did John Locke believe of child development?
A
- Children as blank slates shaped by experiences
- parients as tutors using instruction and rewards
- opposed physical punsihment, promoted compassion
- environment plays role in development
- children seen as passive
4
Q
What did Rousseau believe of child development?
A
- children seen as “noble savages” with innate sense of morality
- child-centered: support development, don’t control it
- developments as stagewise and guided by maturation
- children active in shaping their destiny
5
Q
What did Darwin propose of child development?
A
- observations of variation in species and early development similarities
- natural selection and survival of the fittest
- early human development mirrored species evolution
- careful observation of children’s behaviour
- groundwork for scientific approaches to child development
6
Q
What did Hall suggest about child development?
A
- founder of child-study movement
- natural, staged development (like unfolding of flower)
- normative approach: collecting data from many children
7
Q
What did Gesell suggest of child development?
A
- typical development milestones
- promoted sensitivity to children’s natural cues
8
Q
What was the Mental Testing Movement and who was involved?
A
- Binet and Simon
- identified chuildren needing special education
- first successful intelligence test: Stanford-Binet Scale - predicted school achievement
- Research into individual differences
- brought intelligence to forefront of nautre-nurture debate
9
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory
A
- Erik Erikson and Sigmund Freud
- inner drives, motives and unconscious processes in childhood
- early experiences critical in shaping personality and future behaviour
10
Q
What did Freud propose in the context of Psychoanalytic theory?
A
- Psychosexual theory
- Id, Ego, Superego
- five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
- how children find pleasure or satisfy urges in each stage and conflicts faced with societal expectations
11
Q
Id (Freud)
A
- Present at birth
- largest part of the mind
- source of basic biological needs and desires
12
Q
Ego (Freud)
A
- emerges in early infancy
- rational conscious part
- balances id’s demands, superego’s warnings and the real world
13
Q
Superego (Freud)
A
- Develops between ages 3-6
- moral conscience shaped by societal values
14
Q
Oral Stage
A
- birth - 18 months
- pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting)
- unmet oral needs could result in nail biting or smoking later
15
Q
Anal Stage
A
- 18 months - 3 years
- Pleasure focuses on bowel/bladder control
- conflicts over toilet training can influence attitudes about control (being overly neat or messy)
16
Q
Phallic Stage
A
- 3-6 years
- child’s pleasure focuses on genitals (Oedipus and Electra)
- Superego is formed, children feel guilty when they violate standards
17
Q
Latency Stage
A
- 6-adolescence
- sexual urges repressed, focus on social values
18
Q
Genital Stage
A
- adolesence+
- during puberty, sexual impulses reappear
- successful development during earlier stages leads to marriage, mature secuality and child rearing
19
Q
What did Erik Erickson propose in the context of psychoanalytic theory?
A
- Psychosocial theory
- eight stages spanning the entire lifespan
- emphasis on social relationships and cultural factors shaping development
20
Q
Stages of Erik Erickson’s theory
A
- Trust vs. Mistrust:: Birth-1yr., learn to trust caregivers for basic needs or mistrust if neglected
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: 1-3yrs., independence in tasks, shame/doubt if too much criticism
- Initiative vs. Guilt: 3-5yrs., power/control through direction of play and social interaction, overcontrol leads to guild
- Industry vs. Inferiority: 6-puberty, focus on mastering skills, success fosters competence, failure yields feelings of inferiority
- Identity vs. Role Confusion: adolesence, personal identity and future roles
- Intimacy vs. Isolation: young adulthood, seeking meaningful relationships vs. isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation: middle adulthood, contributing to the next generation vs. feeling unproductive
- Integrity vs. Despair: late adulthood, reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment or regret
21
Q
Behaviourism and Social Learning
A
- all behaviour is learned from the environment via conditioning
- continuous development, no discrete stages, learning happend incrementally
- focuses on observable behaviours vs. internal mental processes
22
Q
Ivan Pavlov
A
- Studied salivation in dogs and discovered classical conditioning
- unconditioned stimulus -> natural response
- conditioned stimulus -> learned response
23
Q
John B. Watson
A
- applied classical conditioning to human infants
- Little Albert Experiment (baby + white rat)
- concluded that environment/experience can shape fears, preferences etc.
24
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
- B.F Skinner
- behaviour is influenced by rewards (reinforcement) or punishments
- postive/negative reinforcements/punishments
25
Bandura and Social Learning Theory
* observational learning: children learn by atching other
* Bobo doll experiment: children imitated aggressive behaviours after seeing adults act aggressively
26
Cognitive Development: Piaget
* Children are active learners
* systematic organization of knowledge into schemes
* **sensorimotor (birth - 2 yrs.)**: learning through sensory experiences and motor actions
* **Preoperational (2-7yrs.)**: symbols, language, make-believe play, thinking is egocentric, not yet logical
* **Concrete operational (7-11yrs.)**: logical thinking about concrete events; classification and conservation tasks
* **Formal operational (11-15+ yrs.)**: abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking
27
Cognitive Development: Vygotsky
* Development shaped by social interactions and culture
* Zone of proximal development: range between what a child can do independently vs. what they can do with guidance
* Language and Thought: social speech -> egocentric speech -> inner speech; language is the tool that facilitates higher cognitive functions
28
Ethological Theory
* study of behaviour from an evolutionary perspective
* importance of sensitive and critical periods in development
29
Ethological Theory: Bowlby
Infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments for survival
30
Ethological Theory: Vygotsky
Sociocultural theory highlights the link between development and culture
31
Ethological Theory: Bronfenbrenner
* Development influenced by multiple, nested environmental systems
* microsystem: immediate environment - family, peers, school
* mesosystem: connections among microsystems - home-school interactions
* exosystem: external settings indirectly affecting child - parent's workplace
* macrosystem: culutral values, laws, customs, ideologies
* chronosystem: time-based dimension affecting all other systems - life transitions, historical events
32
Systematic Observation
* Naturalistic Observation: observing in natural settings
* Structured Observation: conducted in labs
33
Self-Reports
* Clinical Interview: open-ended, flexible
* Structured Interview/Questionnaires: standardized format
34
Case Studies and Ethnography
* Clinical/Case Study: rich detail on one individual
* Ethnography: participant observation in cultural groups
35
Correlational Design
Examines relationships between variables
36
Experimental Design
Manipulates variables to determine cause-effect
37
Longitudnal study
same participants over time
38
Cross-sectional study
Groups of different ages at one time
39
Continuous vs. Discontinuous development
Continuous: gradual improvements in the same skills
Discontinuous: sudden changes in stages with new ways of thinking or behaving
40
Universal Course vs. Multiple Courses
Universal: same sequence of development for all children
Multiple Courses: development shaped by unique contexts (culture, environment, personality)
41
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature: heredity, genetics, biological predispositions
Nurture: environment, upbringing, experiences
Alicia - FRHD*2270
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