Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).
UCR, UCS, CR, CS
UCR-in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
UCS-in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
CR- in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
CS-in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Extinction (of learned responses or associations)
in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response — when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)
Timing of stimuli in classical conditioning
Forward pairing- the CS precedes the US, easiest
Simultaneous pairing- the US and CS occur together
Backward pairing- the CS follows the US, most difficult
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.
Generalization/ Discrimination
Generalization- in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)
Discrimination-in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
Little Albert
conditioned an infant, referred to as “Little Albert,” to fear a white rat by repeatedly pairing it with a loud, startling noise. The study demonstrated that fears could be learned, not just innate, and showed that the fear could generalize to other furry objects
Phobias
irrational paralyzing fears
Systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat specific phobias.
Limits of classical conditioning (Garcia and Koelling rat study)
demonstrated that animals are more readily conditioned to associate tastes with illness and lights/sounds with pain, indicating that some stimulus pairings are more biologically significant and easily learned, particularly for survival
Biological preparedness
not all associations are created equal, species are predisposed to learn some kinds of associations and not others
Fear modules
built in fear for some things that were dangerous in our species past
Law of effect (Thorndike)
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
Operant chamber (Skinner box)
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement
Positive-increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Negative- increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
Primary and Secondary reinforcers
Primary-an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
Secondary-a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
Punishment (limits of punishment)
Positive-an event that decreases a behavior by administering a negative stimulus.
Negative-an event that decreases behavior by removing a rewarding stimulus.
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Chaining
a behavioral modification technique used to teach complex sequences of responses. It involves breaking down a task into smaller, more manageable steps and reinforcing each step in the sequence until the entire task is completed.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed ratio- certain number before reward
Variable ratio- average number of responses
Fixed interval- every certain time wait gets a reward
Variable interval- random time amount passes before getting reward
Latent learning/ Cognitive map
Latent learning-learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Cognitive map-a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Observational learning
learning by observing others.
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Neuroscience and Behavior37
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Introduction, Methods, and History23
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Learning27
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Memory41
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Sensation and Perception24
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Attention and Consciousness20
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Motivation31
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Thinking and Language38
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Personality33
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Development35
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Intelligence23
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Social Psychology29
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Emotion24
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Psychological Disorders36
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Therapy25
