Sensory memory (iconic, echoic)
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Iconic memory-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory-a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Sperling whole report vs. Partial report procedure
Whole report- flash a bunch of letters for a very short second and then ask them to recall all that they saw, typically remembered 4 letters
Partial report- flash a bunch of letters, ask participants to list off a certain row, most of the time participants were able to say what was in the row asked for
Digit span
a measure of an individual’s memory span, specifically the longest sequence of random digits a person can recall immediately after presentation
Short Term Memory
briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Encoding/ storage/ retrieval
encoding- the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning.
Storage-the process of retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval-the process of getting information out of memory storage.
Recall and recognition tests
Recall-a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition-a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Free recall, serial recall, cued recall
Free recall- recall all the words you can from a list
Serial recall- recall the names of all previous presidents in order
Cued recall- give participants some clue to trigger recall
Tests of implicit memory
require participants to complete a task, the performance of the task indirectly indicates memory
Bahricks studies of very long term memory (permastore)
High school yearbooks containing all of the names and photos of the students were used to assess memory
Participants were then asked to identify former classmates either by name or by name and photo
Levels of processing theory
Craik and Lockhart
-different ways we process information leads to different strengths of memories
Deep processing-encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
Shallow processing-encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.
Morris study and transfer appropriate processing
participants who encoded words using rhyme processing (e.g., “what rhymes with train?”) performed better on a rhyming retrieval test than a standard recognition test, while those who used semantic processing (e.g., “is a train related to metal?”) performed better on the standard recognition test, showcasing the principle that memory effectiveness depends on the congruency of processing between the two stages
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.
Working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.
Brooks interference study
required subjects
to recall a spoken sentence by saying a series of “yes”
or “no” responses designed to interfere with an auditoryverbal memory representation of that sentence. T
Extraordinary memories
Conductor Toscanini- could remember every piece of music for a lot of instuments
S- who could remember almost everything, but had a hard time forgetting things
sensory synesthesia
people who have unusual and usually involuntary associations between different sensory modalities or representations
Shepard and Standing’s studies of visual memory
demonstrated the human brain’s remarkable capacity to store vast amounts of visual information in long-term memory, with participants able to recognize a large number of images (hundreds to thousands) after a single viewing
ebbinghaus forgetting curve
describes how rapidly learned information is lost from memory, with the greatest loss occurring immediately after learning, and the rate of forgetting slowing over time
savings with relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
factors that improve memory
Spacing effect-the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Testing effect-enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
Context and state dependent memory
Context dependent- external, environmental factors
State dependent- internal, physiological factors
Mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
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Neuroscience and Behavior37
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Introduction, Methods, and History23
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Learning27
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Memory41
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Sensation and Perception24
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Attention and Consciousness20
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Thinking and Language38
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Personality33
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Development35
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Social Psychology29
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Psychological Disorders36
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