Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Coding definition

A

The format in which information is stored int he various memory stores

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2
Q

Capacity definition

A

How many items can be held in a particular memory store

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3
Q

Duration definitions

A

Length og time the memory store holds the info

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4
Q

Encoding: how do we pass the info into our memory

A

we process the info first through our senses (eg visually, acoustically, olfactory)
Then we must make the info memorable, we go though three processes
Encoding, story, retrieval

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5
Q

Research into coding: Baddeley

A

gave groups of words to 4 groups
- Semantically similar / dissimilar
- Acoustically similar / dissimilar
When asked to immediately recall the list, they did the worse on acoustically similar words
When asked to recall after 20 minutes, they did worse on semantically similar words
This indicates, we encode acoustically in the STM, and semantically in the LTM

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6
Q

Capacity of the STM: Digit Span

A

First tested by Jacobs Miller’s Magic Number: 7 +/- 2 items
Applied to lists of number, digits, or chunks of info

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7
Q

Chunking

A

combining individual numbers into individual meaningful units

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8
Q

Duration of the LTM: Bharick

A

392 participants asked to remember the names of faces in high school yearbook using free recall and photo-recognition 15 and 48 years after graduation
Photo recognition:
- 15 Years: 90% accuracy
- 48 years: 70%
Free Recall: worse than PR, Shows more meaningful memories will be stored the longest and that the duration of the LTM can last for a life time

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9
Q

Duration of the SMT: Peterson and Peterson

A

participants shown a trigram and made down from a three digit number (stops participants from repeating the trigram to remember it) Found the STM had a max duration of 18-30 seconds

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10
Q

CCD AO3: Point One
Encoding

A

Separate Memory Stores:
- identifies a clear difference between the two stores
- An important step in understanding the memory system
Artificial Stimuli:
- Word lists had no meaning
- People therefor may use semantic coding for the STM in real life
- Findings have a limited application

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11
Q

CCD AO3: Point Two
Capacity

A

A Valid Study: Jacobs
- Has been replicated many times with the same outcome
- Shows there was no interference form confounding variables in J’s research
- His findings are valid
Miller:
- Cowan: found the capacity of the STM is only 4 +/- 1 chunks
- Suggests the lower of miller’s estimate is more valid

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12
Q

CCD AO3: Point Three
Duration

A

Meaningless Stimuli: Peterson and Peterson
- Meaningless stimuli
- Sometimes we do have to remember meaningless things eg Wi-Fi password
- Lacks external validity
High EV: Bharick Researchers investigated meaningful memories
- meaning the research had high External Validity
- The findings reflect a more real estimate of the duration of the LTM

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13
Q

Interference: more likely to happen when

A

Memories are similar

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14
Q

Interference: proactive

A

previously learned info interferes with NEW info

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15
Q

Interference: retroactive

A

new memories infer with OLD ones

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16
Q

Interference: Baddeley and Hitch
Aim

A

Investigate retroactive and proactive interfere in everyday memory

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17
Q

Interference: Baddeley and Hitch
Procedure and sample

A

Sample of rugby union players who had played every match and players who had missed some due to an injury The length of time from the start to the end fo the season was the same of all them Players asked to recall the same of all of the teams they had played against earlier in the season

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18
Q

Interference: Baddeley and Hitch
Findings and conclusion

A

players who played in more games forgot proportionally more games than those who had played less This was the result of retroactive interference, as the new game names had interfered in the old one

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19
Q

Interference: McGeoch and Mcondal
Aim

A

Investigate interference when memories are similar

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20
Q

Interference: McGeoch and Mcondal
Procedure

A

participants remember a list of 10 worlds with 100% accuracy, they then learned a new list:
- Synonyms Antonyms
- Unrelated to the original
- Nonsense syllables
- 3 digit numbers No new list

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21
Q

Interference: McGeoch and Mcondal
Findings an conclusion

A
  • when asked to recall the original list, preformace depended on their second list, with synonyms doing the worst
  • Shows interference is stringer with similar memories
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22
Q

WMM: Intro

A

Influential first model of memory, proposing that memory was not unitary but instead it had three sores

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23
Q

MSM: who

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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24
Q

MSM Three Stores:

A
  • sensory register
  • STM
  • LTM
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25
Sensory register
- All stimulus from the environment is passed into the SR - Coding of the info is Modality Specific (depends of the type of info eg aural) - Has a short duration of less than half a second with a high duration - If attention is paid to the info, it will pass into the STM
26
STM
info in the STM is fragile and can be easily lost though decay or displacement if not rehearsed (Maintenance rehearsal)
27
LTM
sufiencently rehearsed info goes to the LTM which has unlimited capacity and durations Info can be lost though retrieval failure or interference
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Decay and Displacement only relevant for
STM
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Duration of Sensory Registers: Sperling
- Visual array of 12 letters shows for 50ms - Asked to write all letters, or the corresponding row with a tone - Whole grid: 42%One row: 75% - Suggests all of the letters were stored in the memory, but only for a short amount of time
30
MSM AO3: Point One Research Support
Clive Wearing had his LTM in tact, but not his STM due to an virus - Shows that LTM and SMT are separate stores However: - Case study - Cant be replicated and only has one participant - Not scientific and less reliable
31
MSM AO3: Point Two Research not support
Shallice and Warrington KF: motorbike accident - He had his visual STM but not his acoustic STM - Shows the STM cannot be a unitary store - However: case study One participant and cant replicate Less reliable and scientific
32
MSM AO3: point three Elabortive Rehearsal
Craik and Watkins: - MSM states the more rehearsal the more likely info is to move to the LTMC - W found elaborative rehersal is the best (learnign info semantically) - Shows that the MSM does not fully explain how long term storage is archived, not just maintennece rehersal - suggests a more complex tong term memeory
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LTM: two types
Declarative and non declarative
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LTM: Declarative Memory
explicit memories Semantic Episodic
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LTM: Non Declarative Memories
implicit memories Procedural
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LTM: semantic memory
* Declarative memory Memeory * facts, knowledge, and concpets * Starts episodic, then progressive losses its associated with the event * Not time stamped * Eg what a bike is
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LTM: Episodic memory
declaritive Personal memeory of events Includes details of the event: context, emotions Time stamped Eg the time you first every rode a bike
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LTM: procedural
* non-declarative * How to do things * Requires repetition and practice * Automatic, dont have to remember how to do them * Eg how to ride a bike
39
LTM AO3: Point One Reseach Evidence
- Tulving et al participants preformed various memeory tasks while having PET scans - Differnt parts of the brain illuminated when recalling differnt memory types - Empirical, so highly replicable an reliable - However, 2 parts of the Brian lite up for certain triggers, meaning the memory stores may be blurred
40
LTM AO3: Point Two RWA
- important as it helps into research into amnesia - Belleville et al Training the episodic memory tasks helps people with episodic impairment
41
LTM AO3: Point Three Diff number of stores
Cohen and Squires :is it really just D and Non D Spires et al: Perceptual-Representation Systems which is supported by research, a third store, remembering things you have to do in the future
42
WWM: Baddely and Hitch
devised a more complex STM - All the info you are currently thinking is held in thing model by several connected parts that do differnt tings simultaneously - Passive store: lets you hold previously learned things - Active system: allows us to work things through eg arithmetic
43
WWM: Central executive
- Limited capacity: data arrived form the sensory registers but cant be help for long -> determine how slave systems are allocated - Baddely: Used analogy of a company CEO - Involves reasoning and Decision making - Collects info from differnt sources and determines how to use it
44
WWM: Phonological Loop
- limited capacity - Deals with: auditory info and preserves word order (inner ear) - Baddely:Further subdivided it into the: Phonology store: holds words we hear Auditory process: holds words heard or seen (inner voice)
45
WWM: Visuospatial Sketchpad
info stored: Visuo: what things looks like Spatial: relationship between things - Limited capacity: 3. - 4 objects - Logie: suggested a subdivision Visuo-cache: store Inner scribe: spatial relations
46
WWM: Episodic Buffer
Baddely: added as he realised the model needed a more general store - Hold the most recent, activated memories from the LTM - Capacity: 4 chunks Joins everything together and keeps track of time
47
WWM: The Word Length Affect
phonological loop explains why it occurs People can cope better with shorter words rather than longer ones in the STM
48
WWM AO3: Point One Research Evidence
Shallice and Warrington: - KF: motorcycle accident with trouble dealing with verbal intro in the STM but not visual - Suggests the phonological loop was damaged by other areas of the WMM weren’t - Case study: why is this bad
49
WWM AO3: Point Two Dual Task Performance
Baddely: 1975 when participant given a visual task, certain tasks would be more difficult to complete simultaneously - Tracking a moving light with a pointer while: - Task 1: deceiving the angles in the letter F - Task 2: an easier verbal task - Task 1 overloaded the visuospatial sketch pad while task two involved 2 separate stores - This give evidence to support the separateness of the stores
50
WWM AO3: Point Three Clarity of the Central Executive
role of the CE is unclear and has been argued that there are actually several components - Eslinger and Damasio: Patient EVR w a brain tumour Preformed well on reasoning but not decision making
51
Interference: what
- when a memory disturbers the recall of another memory - likely to happen when the memories are similar
52
Interference: Proactive Interfrecne
- when an old memory interferes with a new one
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Interference: Retreoactive interfere
- when a new memory interferes with a old one
54
Interference: Baddely and Hitch
Rugby Players Study - some players played whole season, others missed parts bc of injury - measured amount of named they could remember, time span of games same - Players who’d played more games forgot proportionally more names -> interfrecne
55
Interference: McGeoch and McDonald
- learned a list of 10 words 100% - learned a second list - reange of groups, antonyms, synonyms, 3 digits - preformence on recalling the first list depended on their second list, with synonymys doing the worst -> int stronger w similar
56
Interference: AO3 Point One: reseach Evidence
M and M B and H
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Interference: AO3 Point Two: Ecological Valdidty
- lab studies: good bc replicable and controlled but it lacks EV - artificial materials (word lists M and M) -> similarity - lack of motivation to learn - short time frame (however Danahar tv ads with same thing but different names) - however B and H real
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Interference: AO3 Point Three: Cues
Tulving and Psotka - lists to learn, interference as guessed - but when given cues, could remember really well - so not interference, but a lack of cues
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Retrieval Failure: ESP who
Tulving
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Retrieval Failure: what
- when we encode a memeory, we encode the cues along with it - if these cues aren’t present, we struggle to retrieve the memory
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Retrieval Failure: ESP
- the greater the similarity between the event of retrieval and encoding, the greater the chance of remembering
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Retrieval Failure: two Types of cues
- meaningfully (liek mnemonics) - non meaningfully (emotions) - we encode the context and mental state
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Retrieval Failure: Two types of forgetting
- context - state
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Retrieval Failure: Godden and Baddely
- 18 divers - 4 conditions (beach and underwater) - results: recall and learn same = 13.5, 11.4 - results: recall and learn differnt - 8.6, 8.5
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Retrieval Failure: Carter and Cassaday
- same and G and B but with antihistamine - mismatched learning and recall sig less preformace
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Retrieval Failure: AO3 Point One: Reaseach Evidence
Carter and Cassaday Godden and Baddely -> said context may not be as strong in real life Baker: gum
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Retrieval Failure: AO3 Point Two: RWA
- develop Cognitive Interview - students and revsion - astronaughts
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Retrieval Failure: AO3 Point Three: ESP untestable
- cant differentia causation from correlation - when forgetting we dont know if it is bc of cue beign differnt or if cue was even encoded - falsifiablility
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Misleading Info: two types bias
- response bias explanation: change how you answer - substituion bias: change memeory of event
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Misleading Info: Loftus and Palmer
Leading Questions: - shows video of car crash - asked differntly worderd questions - ‘hit’: 34 mph - ‘smashed’: 41mph
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Misleading Info: Gabbert
Post Event Discussion - pairs, watched same thing from differnt angles (saw differnt info) - discussed what they saw - 71% mistakenly recalled aspects they could not have known
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Misleading Info: AO3 Point One: RWA
Devlin Report - LQ: judges taugh to spot and not allow - EWT: no longer can convict PED: police spoilt up people as soon as they can
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Misleading Info: AO3 Point Two: External Validity
artificial task: - LQ: films of accident - PED: inflated differences Anastasi and Rhodes: age can make participants react differnt L and P: all American students -> low population validity
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Misleading Info: AO3 Point Three: PED
- good population validity - but incomplete theory, as we dont know why distortions in memeory occurs - Skagerberg and Wright: may just be merging in of ideas, nt memeory conformity
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Anxiety: Tunnel vision / weapons focus effect
- only focusing on weapon on certain situation -> not observing everything that happens
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Anxiety: Negatve effect
- physiological arousal in body, preventing us from paying attention to cues - Johnson and Scott, Valtenin and Mesout
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Anxiety: Johnson and Scott
- waiting room - hear argument - two variables: low anxiety (man leave with pen in hand), high anxiety group (smashing glass and bloody knife) - findings: pick out man form 50, low 49%, high 33%
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Anxiety: Valentine and Mesout
- visitors to labyrinth of horror - high or low: self report anf heart monitor - low anxiety remembered more detailed of a particular actor, line out 75% low vs 17% high
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Anxiety: Positive effect
- fight or flight could enhance memeory - Yuille and Cutshall - Parker
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Anxiety: Yuille and Cutshall
- gun shop, real life robbery - 13/21 witnesses - interviews 4-5 months after - rate stress out of seven Findings: - highest level of stress were most accurate - 88% compared to 75%
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Anxiety: Parker
- interviewed people home destroyed in tornado - anxiety: how broken home was - findings: moderate anxiety most accurate
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Anxiety: Yerkes-Dodson Law
- suggest there’s a sweet spot of arousal where people aren’t to anxouse as not remeber, or not anxouse enough to take note
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Anxiety: AO3 Point One: RE
- Y and C: anxiety positive effect - 13/21 -> suggests high anxiety actually moderate anxiety - points to YD law, supported by Parker
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Anxiety: AO3 Point Two: Validity
- operinilisaiton of Anxiety done poorly - Parker - lowers IV -> cant see if it is actually anxiety
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Anxiety: AO3 Point Three: Somthign else
Pickle: - man robs receptionist 5 groups: nothing, scissor, handgun, wallet, raw chicken. - chicken had lowest recall -> surprise not anxiety
86
CI: what
- strategy to improve the effectiveness of police interviews - developed with the application of psych reseach into EWT
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CI: 4 parts
- report everything (trigger) - mental reinstatement of context (context dependent forgetting, sometime actually go) - reverse order (deeper processing) - changing perspective (stops schema)
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CI: ECI who
fisher
89
CI: ECI
- reduce anxiety - active listening - speak slowly
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CI: AO3 Point One: RWA
- can be used to illicit more info, solve more crimes - police may not use: not enough time or training - Kebbell and Wagstaff: foudn police actually only use context and report all
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CI: AO3 Point Two: Reseach Evidence
Köhnken: - meta analysis of 55 studies - sound CI 41% more effective Also foudn 81% more info found, but 61% more incorrect info - still use, as the info learned could be crucial - Not use: less to go through
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CI: AO3 Point Three: effectivness
- Milne and Bull: each element produces better info, but report all and context work the best, especially together - Mello and Fisher: works better with elderly - Geiselman: kids over 8
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