Memory Part 2 Unit 7

Question 1

Concepts

Answer 1

• Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
• Way our mind understands things that have stuff in common, come up with a category for them
• Ex: Chairs–> types of chairs

Question 2

Concept Formation

Answer 2

1. Definition

2. Prototype

Question 3

Definition

Answer 3

• Defining something

- Ex: Triangle–> has 3 sides, geometric shape

Question 4

Prototype

Answer 4

• Mental image or best example of a category
• Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
• Ex: typical idea of a bird= robin

Question 5

Problem Solving Strategies

Answer 5

1. Trial and Error
2. Algorithms
3. Heuristics
4. Insight

Question 6

Trial and Error

Answer 6

• Try out a few things and see what works

- ex: keys–> which one opens the lock (try the keys)

Question 7

Algorithms

Answer 7

• Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
• Ex: equations, recipes

Question 8

Heuristics

Answer 8

• Simple thinking strategy that often allows use to make judgements and solve problems efficiency
  
  • Rule of thumb–> doesn’t always work
  • Ex: want to know how many students go to Feehan, count how many people enter during the day

Question 9

Compare and Contrast of Trial and Error, Algorithms, and Heuristics

Answer 9

• Trial and error useful when only a few options
• Heuristics are speedier, yet more prone to error than algorithms
  
  • Ex: searching entire house for keys or only the places they would most likely be

Question 10

Insight

Answer 10

• Sudden, and often novel, realization of the solution to a problem
• Cannot be employed

Question 11

Wolfgang Kohler

Answer 11

• Ex of insight
• Sultan could not get the banana with the short stick in the cage, but realized he could use the stick to get the longer stick, which could reach the banana
• Shows that animals have insight

Question 12

Obstacles to Problem Solving

Answer 12

• Confirmation Bias
• Mental Set
• Fixation
• Functional Fixedness

Question 13

How do we make decisions and form judgements?

Answer 13

• Representative Heuristic
• Availability Heuristic
• Overconfidence
• Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
• Framing

Question 14

Confirmation Bias

Answer 14

• A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence
  
  • Tend to look for things that confirm our beliefs
• EX: Girl thinks boy is cute and nice, only sees him doing good, not bad
• Applied to problem solving: we have difficulty finding right answers when we look for evidence supporting an opinion

Question 15

Fixation

Answer 15

-The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

Question 16

Mental Set

Answer 16

• Tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
• Ex: pushing a door when u are used to pushing, but it is a pull door

Question 17

Functional Fixedness

Answer 17

• The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual function
• Impediment to problem solving

Question 18

Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman

Answer 18

• Studied our nack for using heuristics

- Won a Nobel Prize

Question 19

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 19

• Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
• May lead us to ignore other relevant information
• Ex: soft spoken, short man who likes poetry–> professor or truck driver
  
  • We think professor but it is more likely that it is a truck driver
  • Tend to make a lot of mistakes when we judge anything based on this

Question 20

Availability Heuristic

Answer 20

• Estimating the likely hood of events based on their availability in memory
• If instances come readily to mind (Perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
• Ex: more people are afraid of riding in planes that cars because more horrific plane crashes come to mind

Question 21

Overconfidence

Answer 21

• The tendency to be more confident than correct
• To over-estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
• Reason why we can believe very strongly in somethings and be wrong
• Ex: spelling tasks–> spell new words and rate confidence
  
  • Correct 80% of time, but 100% confident in answers (20% overconfidence)

Question 22

Belief Perseverance Phenomenon

Answer 22

• Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
  
  • When we believe in something, difficult to change
• Ex: people who were for or against death penalty read articles on how death Pentax does and does not defer crime
  
  • Are not swayed, but instead beliefs become stronger

Question 23

Framing

Answer 23

• The way an issue is posed
• Can significantly affect decisions and judgements
• Ex: medical procedure
  
  • 80% chance of life vs 20% chance of death
  • 80% makes them more likely to do the procedure than death

Question 24

Creativity

Answer 24

-The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Question 25

Creativity meets intelligence

Answer 25

- IQ above 120 seems to support creativity | - Two types of thinking: convergent and divergent

Question 26

Convergent Thinking

Answer 26

- Assessed by traditional IQ tests - Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution - Left parietal lobe

Question 27

Divergent Thinking

Answer 27

- Expands the number of possible problem solutions - Creative thinking that diverges in different directions - Frontal lobes

Question 28

Sternberg

Answer 28

- 5 Components of Creativity 1. Expertise: know what you're talking about to get solution 2. Imaginative thinking skills 3. A venturesome personality: take risks and react to obstacles 4. Intrinsic motivation 5. A creative environment: able to go off in your own time

Question 29

Language

Answer 29

-Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Question 30

Phoneme

Answer 30

- In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit - 40 in English, but 800 in existence - We have the ability when born to acquire any type of language, goes away with age (why foreigners struggle with English) - Ex: bat--> 3 phonemes (b, a, t) - Ex: chat--> 3 phonemes (ch, a, t)

Question 31

Morpheme

Answer 31

- In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning - Word or part of word (prefixes or endings) - Some phonemes can be morphemes - EX: I, A, s - Ex: walked--> 2 morphemes (Ed and walk, past tense), walks--> 2 morphemes (s and walk, pluralized or doing)

Question 32

Grammar

Answer 32

- In a language, a system of rules that enable us to communicate w/ and understand others - Categories: semantics and syntax

Question 33

Semantics

Answer 33

- The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language - The study of meaning - EX: Park vs Parked - By adding Ed, making it past tense and changing meaning

Question 34

Syntax

Answer 34

- The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language - Order of words - Ex: in English, adjectives go in front of nouns, in Spanish, nouns go before adjectives

Question 35

Language Development

Answer 35

1. At birth: No language (cannot understand or communicate) 2. Receptive language: Comprehend speech but cannot communicate, discriminates speech sound vs no related sounds (4 months) 3. Productive Language: 1.Babbling, 2.one word stage, 3. Two word stage 4. 24 Months+: language develops rapidly into complete sentences

Question 36

Babbling Stage

Answer 36

- Beginning at about 4 months - The stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language - Cannot tell from babbles when infant is from - Becomes specialized at 10 months

Question 37

One-Word Stage

Answer 37

- 1 to 2 years - The stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words - Ex: truck when sees truck, cat when sees cat

Question 38

Two-Word Stage

Answer 38

- Beginning at age 2 - The stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two word statements - Called Telegraphic speech

Question 39

Telegraphic Speech

Answer 39

- Early speech stage when a child speaks like a telegram - Ex: "go car" - Using mostly nouns and verbs

Question 40

Aphasia

Answer 40

- Impairment of language - usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

Question 41

Linguistic Determinism

Answer 41

- Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think - Shape a person's basic ideas - Too extreme