What is politics? Who was Arendt?
- Hannah Arendt, German-born political theorist and philosopher
- best known for her influential works on totalitarianism, authority and the nature of evil
What is politics? Arendt Definition
“Non-violent conflict resolution” , Book: The Human Condition (1958)
“Non-violent conflict resolution” rooted in collective action. For her, true political power arises when people come together in plurality, acting in concert to reach mutual understanding and shared goals. Unlike violence—which destroys the space for political engagement by imposing will—nonviolent methods like civil disobedience reaffirm the connection between people’s consent and law. Thus, politics is fundamentally about resolving differences through dialogue, participation, and agreement—not coercion or force.
What is politics? Miller definition
“A process whereby a group of people, whose opinions and interests are initially divergent, reach collective decisions which are generally accepted as binding on the group, and enforced as a common policy”
- as we cannot live alone, this definition inherently stems within people living with each other
- politics aims to bring the collective together, to a binding and shared decision
What is politics? Heywood definition
“Activity through which people [or societies] make,
preserve and amend the general rules under which
they live” (Heywood, 1997)
Politics is not only about rule-making—such as creating laws, policies, and norms—but also about preserving and upholding existing institutions and rules, while allowing for their amendment and adaptation over time. At its core, politics functions as a process of conflict resolution, aiming to manage and reconcile disagreements and competing interests within a society.
What is politics? Who is Heywood?
Andrew Heywood, a prominent political thinker
Why does any society need politics? (analyse based on history)
- BIG SHIFT: hunter-gatherer -> neolithic revolution (agriculture)
-> societies became more complex = civilisation concept created (European concept)
-> power dynamics created
Someone is needed to maintain the group, settle collective decisions and preserve conclusions that people came to -> upholding a certain order
Geopolitics / Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is geopolitically significant as a major U.S. trade route, carrying over 60% of grain exports and supporting key industries, while also serving as an “ecological lifeline” vital to continental ecosystems. Its importance creates geopolitical dynamics through federal policies on funding, agriculture, and climate, alongside challenges of resource management such as runoff and aging infrastructure. Although under U.S. control, its role in global trade and ecological stability gives it international relevance.
Geopolitics / incomparability of geopolitical power, asymmetry of power
U.S. rivers like the Mississippi are largely contained within one state’s borders, flow through fertile plains, and remain consistently navigable, making them reliable for trade, agriculture, and transport — consolidating geopolitical power. In contrast, many African rivers such as the Nile or Congo cross multiple borders, face seasonal variability, and are obstructed by waterfalls, rapids, and swamps, which limit navigation. They also carry diseases (e.g., malaria, river blindness), and certain stretches are unsafe due to piracy or conflict. These physical and security challenges fragment their utility and make their geopolitical power less centralised compared to U.S. rivers.
What is Geography? Cohen Definition
“Geography is the study of the features and patterns formed by the interaction of the natural and
human-made environments”
(Cohen, 2015)
- main definition of geography, link to Amqvist and Linklater
What is Geopolitics? Almqvist and Linklater (2021)
“The way geographic factors and the uneven allocation of natural resources around the world affect politics” (Almqvist and Linklater, 2021)
- Geopolitics studies how geography and resource distribution shape political power and relations.
- Geographic features (e.g. borders, coastlines, terrain) influence a state’s security, strategy, and access to trade.
- Uneven resource allocation creates economic inequalities and political tensions between states.
- Resource-rich regions (e.g. the Middle East, Arctic) attract global competition and conflict.
- States lacking resources (e.g. Japan) depend on foreign policy, trade, and alliances for access.
- Geographic constraints (e.g. being landlocked, harsh climate) limit development and power projection.
- Environmental changes like climate change and melting Arctic ice are reshaping modern geopolitical priorities.
Case study connecting Geography with Geopolitics
The Arctic
Geography:
- The Arctic’s geography is defined by its extreme climate, melting ice, and rich natural resources (oil, gas, and minerals).
- As ice melts due to climate change, new sea routes (like the Northern Sea Route) open, altering global trade geography.
Geopolitics:
- These geographic changes create power competition among states such as Russia, the U.S., and China.
- States seek control over shipping lanes and resource extraction zones, leading to new alliances and tensions.
- The Arctic Council becomes a geopolitical forum balancing environmental concerns and sovereignty claims.
… demonstrating how geographic transformation directly drives shifts in global power and strategic relations.
Cohen “Geography” definition case study
The Netherlands
- The Netherlands is a low-lying country, with about one-third of its land below sea level — a natural geographic feature.
- Humans have reshaped this environment through dikes, polders, and advanced flood-control systems to reclaim land and protect against rising sea levels.
- This constant interaction between natural geography (water, floodplains) and human innovation (engineering, urban planning) exemplifies Cohen’s concept of geography as a dynamic relationship.
Almqvist and Linklater “Geopolitics” case study
UAE - Desalinisation
- The UAE is in a desert region with almost no freshwater.
- To overcome this, it uses desalination to turn seawater into drinking water.
- Because desalination is energy-intensive, water security depends on oil and energy policy.
- The UAE exports its desalination technology and invests in water projects abroad.
- This gives it regional influence and strengthens diplomatic ties.
- It shows how geography and resource scarcity shape political power > especially to those with less access to resources (water), and how stronger states are able to overcome these challenges.
VS
Yemen
- Both countries are in the Arabian Peninsula and face extreme aridity and minimal freshwater resources.
- UAE: Uses desalination plants powered by oil wealth to produce almost all its drinking water.
- Yemen: Lacks funds and stability to build large-scale desalination; relies mostly on overused groundwater and rainfall.
- Outcome:
> The UAE turns scarcity into strategic power, exporting desalination technology, gaining influence and simply having freshwater to provide to citizens.
> Yemen faces water insecurity, internal conflict over resources, and humanitarian crises.
- uneven access to resources, and the ability to manage it, creates political inequality and power differences between states
