1
Q
What is the central principle of liberalism?
A
- the individual and their capacity for self-fulfilment
- It holds that individuals are rational and autonomous
-> society should maximise individual liberty (while ensuring equal rights and opportunities)
2
Q
What are the core values of liberalism? 4 TIFJ
A
individualism, freedom, justice, and toleration
3
Q
Individualism meaning
Liberalism
A
- supreme importance of the individual before a social group or collective body
- humans are seen firstly as individuals
- equal moral worth
- posses single, unique identities
4
Q
Liberal goal of individualism
A
to construct a society where every individual can flourish/develop, pursuing the ‘good’ that defines them, to the best of their abilities
(morally neutral, individuals can make own moral decisions)
5
Q
Freedom/Liberty meaning
Liberalism
A
individuals should enjoy the maximum possible liberty, consistent with a like liberty for all (because one persons liberty may be a threat to liberty of others)
6
Q
Reason meaning
Liberalism
A
- world has rational structure, can be uncovered through human reason and critical enquiry
- > therefore, they have faith that individuals can make wise judgements on their own behalf (being mostly of their own interest)
7
Q
Reason within liberalism
A
- believe in progress
- believe in human ability to resolve their differences through debate and argument, not bloodshed and war
8
Q
Equality meaning
Liberalism
A
individuals are ‘born equal’ (moral worth)
9
Q
Equality within liberalism
A
- commitment to equal rights, entitlements
- esp. legal equality (‘equality before law’) and political equality (‘one person, one vote; one vote, one value’)
- BUT ppl dont have same talent or willingness to work > liberals dont support social equality/equality of outcome
- favor an equal playing field -> individuals have equal chance to realise unequal potential
- support principle of meritocracy (merit reflecting talent + hard work)
10
Q
Toleration meaning
Liberalism
A
the willingness of people to allow others to think, speak and act in ways of which they dissaprove = guarentee of individual liberty and a way to social enrichment
11
Q
Toleration within liberalism
A
- pluralism (moral, cultural and political diversity) is healthy -> promotes debate, intellectual progress by making sure all beliefs are tested in the free market of ideas
- balance/natural harmony between rival views and interests
- discount idea of irreconcilable conflict
12
Q
Consent meaning
A
authority and social relationships are always based on consent and agreement
Liberalism
13
Q
Consent within liberalism
A
government is based on ‘consent to be goverened’
- doctrine that encourages liberals to favour representation/democracy within liberal democracy
- social bodies, associations are formed through contracts willingly entered by individuals intent on pursuing self interest
- authority rises ‘from below’, grounded on legitimacy
14
Q
Constitutionalism meaning
Liberalism
A
the principle that a government’s power should be limited and defined by a constitution; being constantly aware of the danger the government may become tyranny against the indivdual: ‘power tends to corrupt’ (Lord Acton)
15
Q
How can constitutionalism within liberalism be accomplished
A
- fragmentation of government power
- creation of checks and balances amongst various insitutions of government
- establishment of a codified / “written” constitution -> embodying bill of rights defining relationship between state and individual
16
Q
How do liberals view the state?
A
- wary of concentrated power but accept the necessity of a state
- Classical liberals: favour a minimal state confined to protecting life, liberty, and property (function: maintenance of domestic order and personal security)
- Modern liberals: accept a more interventionist role, arguing that state action (welfare, education, regulation) can expand liberty by tackling inequality and ensuring people can realise their potential
17
Q
What is the liberal economic stance?
A
- Classical liberalism: praise
the merits of a self-regulating market in which government intervention is seen as both unnecessary
and damaging (theories of natural rights, utilitarianism) - Modern liberalism: exhibits a more sympathetic attitude towards the state, born out of the belief that unregulated capitalism merely produces new forms of injustice
-> State intervention can therefore enlarge liberty by safeguarding individuals from the social evils that blight their existence
18
Q
Understanding of freedom Classic vs Modern liberalism
A
- Classic: understand in ‘negative’ terms, as the absence of constraints upon the individual
- Modern: link freedom to personal development and selfrealisation (overlap social democracy with modern liberalism), positive freedoms
19
Q
Why is liberalism considered the most powerful ideological force in the West?
A
- it has shaped the Western political tradition more than any other ideology
- some portray it as the ideology of the industrialised West and even equate it with Western civilisation itself
20
Q
What historical context gave rise to liberalism?
A
- emerged from the breakdown of feudalism and the rise of a market or capitalist society
- it reflected the aspirations of a growing industrial middle class
-> closely linked with capitalism ever since
21
Q
What was the earliest form of liberalism concerned with?
A
- attacked absolutism and feudal privilege
- promoted constitutional and later representative government as an alternative
22
Q
How did classical liberalism in the 19th century express itself economically?
A
- took the form of economic liberalism praising laissez-faire capitalism (allowing free markets, competition, and individual self-interest to drive economic prosperity)
- condemning all forms of government intervention
23
Q
How did liberalism evolve in the late 19th century?
A
- form of social or modern liberalism emerged -> accepted welfare reform and economic intervention as necessary to address inequalities created by unregulated capitalism
24
Q
How did theorists like Fukuyama view liberalism in the 20th century?
A
He argued that liberalism had triumphed worldwide after the Cold War, with no viable alternatives to market capitalism or liberal democracy remaining
25
What makes liberalism attractive compared to other ideologies?
- consistent commitment to individual freedom
- reasoned debate
- balancing diversity
It is even described as a “meta-ideology,” (a framework for political and ideological debate)
26
What does it mean to say liberalism prioritises ‘the right’ over ‘the good’?
- does not prescribe a single vision of the good life
- establishes conditions for individuals and groups to pursue their own definitions of the good
27
Main critics of liberalism
1. **Marxists:** legitimises capitalism and unequal class power, acting as bourgeois ideology
2. **Radical feminists:** linked to patriarchy, based on a male model of self-sufficiency, pressuring women to become “like men.” (competition, rational self-interest)
3. **Communitarians** *(emphasizes the importance of community and social bonds over pure individualism)*: state and society should foster community values, traditions, and participation (not just protect individual freedoms), encouraging egoism and greed, which makes it ultimately self-defeating.
28
Tradition
## Footnote
Conservatism
- central theme of conservatism thought
- "desire to conserve"
- linked to percieved high moral standards of tradition, respecting established customs/insitutions that have endured a long time
-> tradition = accumulated wisdom of past, insitutions/practices that have been 'tested by time' + should be preserved for benefit of present and future generations
- promoting sense of social and historical belonging
29
Pragmatism
## Footnote
Conservatism
preferring practical solutions rather than abstract theories or ideological change
- rely on tradition / succes, not utopian plans
30
Pragmatism within conservatism
- traditionally, emphases limitations of human rationality due to the infinite complexity of the world we live in
- abstract priniciples, systems of thought = distrusted
- faith is found within experience, history, pragmatism
31
Human imperfection
## Footnote
Conservatism
human beings are limited, dependent, security-seeking creatures
- drawn to the familiar / tried and tests
- needing to live in stable and orderly communities
- morally corrupt
- tained by selfishness, greed, thirst for power
- roots of crime and disorder -> reside in human individual not society
32
Human imp. within conservatism
maintenance of order = needs strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, stiff penalties
33
Organicism
## Footnote
Conservatism
- society ≠ artefact (product of human ingenuity)
- society = organic whole, living entity
- structured by natural necessity, with various institutions (families, local communities, nation, etc.) -> adds to health and stability of society
- whole is more than collection of individual parts
- shared values/tradition and common culture is necessary to the maintenance of community and social cohesion
34
Hierarchy
## Footnote
Conservatism
- graditions of social position/ status = natural and inevitable in an organic society
- reflect differing roles and responsibilities of eg. teachers and pupils, parents and children
- hierarchy / inequality dont lead to conflict, because society is bound by mutual obligations and recipricol duties
- persons 'station in life' = luck, accident of birth
- priviledged have responsibility to care for less fortuante
35
Authority
## Footnote
Conservatism
authority is always exercised from above -> leadership, guidance, support to those who lack knowledge, experience, education to act wisely in their own interests (eg. authority parents over children)
- natural aristocracy -> used to be influencial, authority, leadership is now common stemming from experience and training
36
Authority within conservatism
- source of social cohesion, giving people ability to see who they are and what is expected of them
- freedom is consistent with responsibility
- largely consistent with willing acceptance of obligations and duties
37
Property
## Footnote
Conservatism
property ownership = vital by giving people security and a measure of indpendence from the government, encouraging them to respect the law and property of others
- showing peoples personalities (they 'see' themselves in what they own): cars, hosues, etc
- also involves duties and rights
- merely custodians of property that has either been inherited or may be of value to future generations
38
What are the main divisions within conservatism?
1. **Authoritarian conservatism:** autocratic and reactionary, stressing that government 'from above' is the only means of establishing order
2. **Paternalistic conservatism:** “reform from above” to avoid revolution, duty of the wealthy to support the poor; developed into One Nation conservatism under Benjamin Disraeli (19th century British statesman, Conservative politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom)
3. **Libertarian conservatism**: maximum economic freedom, minimal state, combined with traditional authority and duty; basis for the New Right (*wants less state in the economy but more state in enforcing morality and order*)
39
What historical events gave rise to conservatism?
emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries as a reaction to rapid change, symbolised by the French Revolution (1789), and in defence of traditional social order against liberalism, socialism, and nationalism
40
What happened to authoritarian conservatism in Europe?
it rooted itself on the continent but was weakened by constitutionalism and democracy, and eventually collapsed with the fall of fascism, with which it often collaborated
41
What criticisms are directed at conservatism?
- merely ruling class ideology, defending privilege and the status quo.
- incoherent, with contradictions between traditional conservatism and the New Right
42
How do conservatives defend their ideology against these criticisms?
They argue conservatism reflects enduring truths about human nature: people are morally and intellectually imperfect, and need the security of tradition, authority, and shared culture. They stress experience and history as better guides to action than abstract ideals like freedom, equality, and justice.
43
Which 2 individuals 'founded' conservatism?
- Edmund Burke: when dealing with politics, you have to understand history and be educated = elitism), French revolution "Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite" = too abstract
- Madame Staël = Daughter of Necker (Minister of Finance Louis 16th)
44
Community
## Footnote
Socialism
- human beings are social creatures, linked by existence of a common humanity (CORE)
- poet John Donne: "no man is an Island entire of itself; every man is a piece of the Contient, a part of the main."
- importance of community, highlighting degree to which individual identity is fashioned by social interaction / membership of social groups / collective bodies
45
Community within socialism
inclined to emphasise nuture over nature
- explain individual behaviour mainly in terms of social factors, not intrinsic qualities
46
Fraternity
## Footnote
Socialism
- humans share common humanity, bound together by comradeship and fraternity ("brotherhood", broadened to embrace all humans)
- prefer cooperation to competition
- favour collectivism over individualism
- cooperation -> people can harness collective energies, strengthening bonds of community
- competition -> pits individuals against each other, breeding resentment, conflict, hosility
47
Equality
## Footnote
Socialism
- central value
- sometimes portrayed as form of egalitarianism = equality is above all other values
48
Social Equality
## Footnote
Socialism
- essential guarantee of social stability and cohesion -> individuals are able to indentify with other human beings
- basis for exercise of legal and political rights
- disagree about extent to which social equality can/should be brought about
49
Marxists + social equality
- believe in absolute social equality
- brought about by collectivisation of production wealth
50
Social democrats + social equality
- favour merely narrowing material inequalities
- more concerened with equalising opportunities than outcomes
51
Need
## Footnote
Socialism
- material benefits should be distributed based on need, not simply basis of merit or work
- based from Marx's communist principle of distribution
-> satisfaction of basic needs, are a prerequisite for a worthwile human existence and participation of social life
-> requires ppl to be motivated by moral incentives, not material ones
52
Marx's communist principle of distribution
"from each according to his ability, to each according to his need"
53
Social class
## Footnote
Socialism
- analyse society in terms of distribution of income or wealth -> seen social class as most significant social indicator
- reflect interests of oppressed and exploited working class -> working class is an agent of social change, even social revolution
- goal: the eradication of economic and social inequalities, or their substantial reduction
54
Common ownership
## Footnote
Socialism
Controversial
- end of socialism itself vs means of generating broader equality
- harnessing material resources to the common good
- private proptery = promotes selfishness, acquisitveness and social divison
- Modern socialism: moved away from concern
55
Main divisons within socialism
1. Reformist socialism: socialism through the ballot box, accepting democratic principles like consent and constitutionalism.
2. Revolutionary socialism: socialism achieved by overthrowing the state and capitalist system; linked to communism.
3. Marxism: uses historical analysis; predicts capitalism will inevitably be replaced by socialism.
4. National vs. International
5. State (equality through state) vs. Libertarian (equality through grass roots, decentralised self-organisation)
6. Democratic vs. Non-democratic
56
What historical conditions gave rise to socialism?
- emerged in response to the poverty and exploitation created by industrial capitalism
- articulated the interests of the growing working class and oppressed groups
- Saint-Simonians, Owenties > rich trying to create better working conditions
57
What has been socialism’s impact historically?
For over 200 years it has been the main opposition to capitalism, most influential through 20th-century communism and social democracy
58
What setbacks did socialism face in the late 20th century?
- the collapse of communism in 1989–91
- globalisation (shifted economic power toward markets and multinational corporations, undermining socialism’s emphasis on state planning and equality)
- social change weakened socialist parties (eg. rise of middle class, higher education more accesible, individualism/personal success)
-> leading some to proclaim the “death of socialism.”
- many parliamentary parties revised or abandoned traditional socialist principles
59
Measures of social equality
1. essential guarentee of social stability and cohesion
2. promotes freedom
3. satisfies material needs
4. provides basis for personal development
60
What are the main criticisms of socialism?
1. collectivism leads to excessive state control, restricting freedom
-> both communism and social democracy can become “top-down” systems
2. modern socialism is seen as confused, since accepting market principles undermines its original critique of capitalism
61
Liberal democracy
- power can be transitioned (belongs to people, not rulers)
- nobody holds monopoly of truth
- compromise is only way to order discrepancy and challenge disagreement
-> contest for power holds common rules
- when losing electoral process, the losing side accepts others win
- a 'moral code' = common rules
62
When did the number of liberal democracies spread
1990s, hope in West
63
Example Liberal democracy
**Germany**
1. *Power belongs to the people and transitions peacefully:* Germany holds regular, free elections where governments change without violence (e.g. Merkel → Scholz in 2021).
2. *No monopoly on truth:* Germany has a pluralist media landscape and guarantees press freedom under the Basic Law (Grundgesetz), preventing state or party dominance of information.
3. *Compromise as the basis of politics:* proportional representation means coalition governments are the norm, requiring negotiation and compromise between parties.
4. *Electoral losers accept outcomes:* opposition parties (e.g. CDU/CSU after 2021) recognise results and continue to operate within the democratic framework.
5. *Shared moral code/common rules:* the Basic Law functions as the “moral code,” establishing rights, rule of law, and democratic principles that all political actors must respect.
64
Illiberal Democracy
1997, Fareed Zakaria
**Everyone has right to vote among multiple candidates, but human rights and individual liberties are not well observed**
eg. votes are miscounted, opposition harrased, killing of journalists, shutdown of internet to avoid protest
- 2/3 of democracies worldwide = illiberal
65
Example of illiberal democracy
**Turkey**
- Elections held regularly with multiple parties (e.g. Erdoğan’s AKP, CHP, HDP, etc.).
- Weak protection of rights:
> Opposition parties and candidates face harassment and restrictions.
> Journalists are frequently imprisoned; Turkey is ranked among the lowest in press freedom worldwide.
> Internet access has been restricted during protests (e.g. social media bans during Gezi Park 2013 and later unrest).
> Human rights groups criticise Turkey for political imprisonment and erosion of judicial independence.
- Turkey meets the formal conditions of democracy (elections), but undermines liberal elements (rights, freedoms, checks and balances)
66
things to write about liberalism 9
## Footnote
as per heywood
- individualism
- freedom
- justice
- tolerance
- consent
- constitutionalism
- economic stance
- reason
- equality
67
things to write about socialism 6
## Footnote
as per heywood
- community
- fraternity
- equality / social equality
- need
- social class
- common ownership
68
things to write about conservatism 7
## Footnote
as per heywood
- tradition
- pragmatism
- human imperfection
- organicism
- hierarchy
- authority
- property
Geopolitics
flashcards
Decks in class (18)
# Cards
