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Topic 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What did traditional Foreign Language Teaching concentrated on?

A

On getting students consciously to learn items of language in isolation

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2
Q

What did Krashen say about how language was learned?

A

People got to know about the language (learning) but could not use it in a real context (acquisition), since the focus was not on communication, but on a piece of language.

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3
Q

Trager’s definition of language (1949)

A

“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture”.

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4
Q

Hall’s definition of language (1964)

A

“The institutions whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.

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5
Q

Chomsky’s definition of language (1957)

A

“a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”

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6
Q

What are the seven properties that attempt to differentiate human language from all other form of signalling and which make it a unique type of communication system?

A

Communicative vs. informative, displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, discreteness and other properties

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7
Q

Describe the property of human language called “communicative versus informative”

A

Informative signals are those that are given unintentionally; whereas communicative signals respond to some intended effects from human beings.

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8
Q

Describe the property of human language called “displacement”

A

Human language users can refer to past and future time, and to other locations. It allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment.

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9
Q

Describe the property of human language called “arbitrariness”

A

It is generally the case that there is no “natural” connection between a linguistic form and its meaning; they do not, in any way, “fit” the objects they denote.

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10
Q

Describe the property of human language called “productivity”

A

It is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created. It is an aspect of language which is linked to the fact that the potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite.

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11
Q

Describe the property of human language called “cultural transmission”

A

It is the process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next. Cultural transmission of a specific language is crucial in the human acquisition process.

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12
Q

Describe the property of human language called “discreteness”

A

The sounds used in a language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between a B sound and a P sound is not actually very great, but when these sounds are used in a language, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful.

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13
Q

Name other properties that human language has but that aren’t unique to it

A

The use of vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity and specialisation or rapid fading.

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14
Q

What are the six (+1) functions of language proposed by Roman Jakobson?

A

Referential (denotative or cognitive), emotive (expressive), conative, phatic, metalingual (metalinguistic), poetic and performative

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15
Q

Describe the REFERENTIAL, DENOTATIVE OR COGNITIVE function as proposed by Jakobson

A

It is the leading task of numerous messages. It refers to the context and it includes descriptive statements. The speaker uses the language to transmit information to the addresser.

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16
Q

Describe the EMOTIVE OR EXPRESSIVE function as proposed by Jakobson

A

It aims a direct expression of the speaker’s attitude toward what he is speaking about.

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17
Q

Describe the CONATIVE function as proposed by Jakobson

A

It is directed to the addressee. It finds its purest grammatical expression in the vocative and imperative. It is used when the speaker wants the addressee to do something.

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18
Q

Describe the PHATIC function as proposed by Jakobson

A

It refers to the social function of language, which arises out of the basic human need to signal friendship, or, at least, lack of enmity. It is associated with the contact/channel factor and it serves a social purpose.

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19
Q

Describe the METALINGUAL OR METALINGUISTIC function as proposed by Jakobson

A

It refers to the use of language to speak about language itself.

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20
Q

Describe the POETIC function as proposed by Jakobson

A

It focuses on the message for its own sake. Rhetorical figures, pitch or loudness are some aspects of the poetic function. It is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.

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21
Q

Describe the PERFORMATIVE function of language

A

A performative sentence is an utterance that performs an act. This use occurs in the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony (the act of naming the ship coincides in time with the act of launching her), or when a priest baptizes a child (equally, the child is baptised at the time the priest pronounces the words).

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22
Q

Chomsky’s definition of communicative competence

A

An able speaker has a subconscious knowledge of the grammar rules of their language which allows them to make sentences in that language (i. e. competence).

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23
Q

Name the four aspects of communicative competence proposed by Hymes

A

Systematic potential, appropriacy, occurrence and feasibility

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24
Q

Describe SYSTEMATIC POTENCIAL as one of the aspects of communicative competence proposed by Hymes

A

A native speaker possesses a system that has a potential for creating language.

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25
Describe APPROPRIACY as one of the aspects of communicative competence proposed by Hymes
A native speaker knows what language is appropriate in a given situation.
26
Describe OCCURRENCE as one of the aspects of communicative competence proposed by Hymes
A native speaker knows how often something is said in the language and acts accordingly.
27
Describe FEASIBILITY as one of the aspects of communicative competence proposed by Hymes
A native speaker knows whether something is possible in the language.
28
What is Canale and Swain's view in the debate about whether communicative competence includes grammatical competence and/or communicative performance?
They maintain that just as there are rules of grammar that would be useless without rules of language use (Hymes, 1972), so there are also rules of language use that would be useless without rules of grammar. Hence, they see communicative competence as consisting of grammatical competence plus sociolinguistic competence.
29
What are the two subcomponents of communicative competence proposed by Canale and Swain?
They use “the term ‘communicative competence’ to refer to the relationship and interaction between grammatical competence, or knowledge of the rules of grammar, and sociolinguistic competence, or knowledge of the rules of language use”.
30
What are the four componentes of communicative competence as proposed by Canale (1983)?
Grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence
31
Describe GRAMMATICAL COMPETENCE as one of the components of communicative competence proposed by Canale (1983).
Producing a structured comprehensible utterance (including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling)
32
Describe SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE as one of the components of communicative competence proposed by Canale (1983).
Involving knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language and discourse
33
Describe DISCOURSE COMPETENCE as one of the components of communicative competence proposed by Canale (1983).
Shaping language and communicating purposefully in different genres (text types), using cohesion (structural linking) and coherence (meaningful relationships in language).
34
Describe STRATEGIC COMPETENCE as one of the components of communicative competence proposed by Canale (1983).
Enhancing the effectiveness of communication (e.g. deliberate speech), and compensating for breakdowns in communication (e.g. comprehension checks, paraphrase, conversation fillers).
35
Describe the historical attitude towards spoken language
Spoken language was ignored, when not condemned, as an object unworthy of study. The central point was that spoken language lacked care and organization which assumed that speech could not be studied scientifically.
36
Describe the historical attitude towards written language
Written language was traditionally considered to be superior to spoken language for many centuries. This is since written language was the medium of literature and literature was considered a source of standards of linguistic excellence.
37
How did the historial attitudes towards written and spoken language change?
A group of linguists and ethnographers argued in favour of studying speech as the primary medium of communication. In view of this criterion, the urgency of providing techniques was stressed for the analysis of spoken language and many linguists came to think of written language as a tool of secondary importance. Writing came to be excluded from the primary subject matter of linguistic science.
38
What is the current attitude towards written and spoken language?
Nowadays, there is no sense in the view that one medium of communication is intrinsically better. Writing cannot substitute for speech, nor speech for writing. The functions of speech and writing are usually said to complement each other.
39
Define “speech”
Speech is the universal material of human language. It is well known that for many hundreds of thousands of years, human language was transmitted and developed entirely as spoken means of communication. The description and classification of speech sounds is the main aim of phonetics.
40
Explain the origin of “written language”
Myths and legends of the supernatural shroud of the early history of writing. One point, at least, is fairly clear. It now seems most likely that writing systems evolved independently of each other at different times in several parts of the world. There is nothing to support a theory of common origin. In addition, two types of writing systems can be established: non-phonological and phonological.
41
What are the differences between spoken and written language in general terms?
They contrast in physical form; that is, speech, on the one hand, uses phonic substance, typically in the form of air-pressure movements and writing, on the other hand, uses graphic substance, typically in the form of marks on a surface.
42
According to Holtgraves’ model features (2002), what are the characteristics of spoken language when it comes to GRAMMATICAL FEATURES?
The tendency to ellipsis; the abbreviation of verbs; the ability for phrases, particularly noun phrases to stand for complete utterances; high incidence of coordinated clauses; the use of and as a loose continuation marker; problematic clause analyses; and active verb forms.
43
According to Holtgraves’ model features (2002), what are the characteristics of written language when it comes to GRAMMATICAL FEATURES?
Full phrases and clauses with little abbreviation and less ellipsis (Except in conjoining and listing); standard grammar; longer and more complex clauses with embedded phrases and clauses; densely informative noun phrases; and explicit and varied marking of clause relations.
44
According to Holtgraves’ model features (2002), what are the characteristics of spoken language when it comes to LEXICAL FEATURES?
Low lexical density; tendency for less abstract vocabulary; tendency for more generalized and simpler vocabulary and semantically “empty” prefabricated “fillers”; use of terms that depend on the context of production for their understanding.
45
According to Holtgraves’ model features (2002), what are the characteristics of written language when it comes to LEXICAL FEATURES?
High lexical density; complex vocabulary and the use of more abstract terms with a higher incidence or words of Greek and Latin origin; greater variety in choice of vocabulary with lower levels of repetition.
46
According to Holtgraves’ model features (2002), what are the characteristics of spoken language when it comes to DISCOURSE FEATURES?
Discourse produced by more than one participant; high incidence of markers of interpersonal dynamics; repetition and echoing between speakers; indication of the presence of the author of the discourse.
47
According to Holtgraves’ model features (2002), what are the characteristics of written language when it comes to DISCOURSE FEATURES?
Explicit presentation of idea to a non-presence audience; few markers of interpersonal or personally-oriented discourse; explicit indication of text organization.
48
What is the broad definition of communication?
The exchange of meanings between individuals through a common system of symbols.
49
What is Savignon’s definition of language and communication? (1997)
Communication takes place in an infinite variety of situations, and success in a particular role depends on one’s understanding of the context and on prior experience of a similar kind. Success requires making appropriate choices of register and style in terms of the situation and the other participants.
50
What did Shannon’s communication channel consisted of?
A sender (a source of information), a transmission medium (with noise and distortion), and a receiver (whose goal is to reconstruct the sender’s messages).
51
What is the name and effect of the other element that was later introduced in the communication model?
It was the notion of entropy, first called noise source. The notion of entropy diminishes the integrity of the message and distorts the message for the receiver.
52
What are the two mechanisms which are aimed at counteracting the potential failures in the communication process?
On the one hand, negative entropy may occur in instances where incomplete or blurred messages are nevertheless received intact, either because of the ability of the receiver to fill in missing details or to recognize, despite distortion or paucity of information, both the intent and the content of the communication. On the other hand, redundancy also counteracts entropy. Redundancy can be defined as the repetition of elements within a message that prevents the failure of communication of information, and is the greatest antidote for entropy. It is an indispensable element for effective communication.
53
Regarding the Speech Act Theory, what are the two main types of functions distinguished by the British philosopher Austin?
PERFORMATIVE (It is an utterance that performs an act: to say is to act. Performative may be explicit as “promise, warn and deny” and implicit performatives, which do not contain a performative verb as in “There is a vicious dog behind you”) and CONSTATIVE (It is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false)
54
What are the three types of speech acts according to the effect of utterances on the behavior of speaker and hearer?
- Locutionary acts. It is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. - Illocutionary acts. It is the use of a sentence to perform a function, the cases where saying is doing. - Perlocutionary acts. It is the result or effect that is produced by means of saying something.
55
According to Seattle (1969), which are the five basic, primitive illocutionary points?
Directives, assertives, commissives, declaratives and expressives.
56
Describe Seattle’s primitive illocutionary point called DIRECTIVES
Attempt to get the hearer to perform some future action. Prototypes include requesting, ordering and questioning.
57
Describe Seattle’s primitive illocutionary point called ASSERTIVES
Attempt to represent an actual state of affairs, to commit the speaker to something being the case. Prototypes include asserting, concluding, informing, predicting and reporting.
58
Describe Seattle’s primitive illocutionary point called COMMISSIVES
Attempt to commit the speaker to a future course of action. Prototypes include warning, promising, threatening and guaranteeing.
59
Describe Seattle’s primitive illocutionary point called DECLARATIVES
Attempt to bring about a change in some institutional state of affairs. Prototypes include declaring war, performing a marriage, and calling a base runner “out”.
60
Describe Seattle’s primitive illocutionary point called EXPRESSIVES
Attempts to express a psychological state. Prototypes include thanking, complaining, greeting and apologizing.
61
What is the other key feature that may be considered in communication and how is it defined?
The context. This concept is defined by the Collins English Dictionary as “the parts of a piece of writing, speech, etc. that precede and follow a word or passage and contribute to its full meaning” as well as “the conditions and circumstances that are relevant to an event, fact, etc.”.
62
What are the three components by which Halliday categorizes the communicative situation?
Field of discourse (what is happening), tenor of discourse (who is taking part) and mode of discourse (what it is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation).
63
Bibliography. CANALE
Canale, M. (1983). From Communicative Competence to Communicative Language Pedagogy. In J. C. Richard, & R. W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication (pp. 2-14). Longman.
64
Bibliography. HALLIDAY
Halliday, M. A. K. (1989). Spoken and Written Language. Oxford University Press.
65
Bibliography. HOLTGRAVES
Holtgraves, T. M. (2002). Language as Social Action: Social Psychology and Language Use. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
66
Bibliography. JAKOBSON
Jakobson, R. (1960). Linguistics and Poetics. In T. Sebeok (Ed.), Style in Language (pp. 350-377). Cambridge: MIT Press.
67
Bibliography. SAVIGNON
Savignon, S. J. (1983). Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Pearson Education.
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