AP psych > unit 4 > Flashcards

unit 4 Flashcards

(75 cards)

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1
Q

X chromosome

A

One of the two sex chromosomes in humans; females have two X chromosomes, males have one
ex: A female inherits one X from each parent.

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2
Q

Y chromosome

A

The sex chromosome that determines male biological sex.
ex: Males have one X and one Y chromosome.

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3
Q

Testosterone

A

A male sex hormone responsible for the development of male reproductive tissues and secondary sex characteristics
ex: Testosterone levels rise in boys during puberty, causing voice deepening and muscle growth.

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4
Q

Puberty

A

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction
ex: Girls may start menstruating and boys may experience a growth spurt.

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5
Q

Primary sex characteristics

A

The body structures directly involved in reproduction.
ex: Ovaries in females and testes in males.

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6
Q

Secondary sex characteristics

A

Physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.
ex: Breast development in girls, facial hair in boys.

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7
Q

Menarche

A

The first menstrual period in girls
ex: Typically occurs around age 12-13 in the U.S.

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8
Q

AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

A

A life-threatening condition caused by the HIV virus, which weakens the immune system.
ex: People with AIDS are vulnerable to infections that a healthy immune system could normally fight off.

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9
Q

Sexual orientation

A

A person’s enduring sexual attraction toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes.
ex: Heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual orientation.

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10
Q

Aggression

A

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
ex: Yelling at someone or hitting another person during an argument.

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11
Q

Gender roles

A

The expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits society considers appropriate for males and females.
ex: Men as breadwinners, women as caregivers.

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12
Q

Roles

A

The behaviors expected of a person in a particular social position.
ex: A teacher is expected to educate and guide students.

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13
Q

Gender identity

A

One’s personal sense of being male, female, or another gender.
ex: A person assigned female at birth may identify as male.

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14
Q

Social learning theory

A

Theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating others and through rewards/punishments.
ex: A child sees a sibling punished for aggressive behavior and avoids acting aggressively.

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15
Q

Gender typing

A

The process of adopting traditional male or female roles.
ex: A boy playing with trucks because society associates them with masculinity.

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16
Q

Transgender

A

A person whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
ex: Someone assigned male at birth identifies as female.

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17
Q

Zygote

A

The fertilized egg, the first stage of prenatal development.
ex: A sperm and egg unite to form a zygote.

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18
Q

Embryo

A

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization.
ex: The heart begins to beat during the embryonic stage.

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19
Q

Fetus

A

The developing human from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
ex: Organs continue to mature during the fetal stage.

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20
Q

Teratogens

A

Agents like chemicals or viruses that can cause harm to a developing embryo or fetus.
ex: Alcohol or certain medications can be teratogens.

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21
Q

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant mother’s heavy drinking.
ex: Children may have facial deformities and learning disabilities.

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22
Q

Habituation

A

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
ex: A baby stops reacting to a repeatedly shown toy.

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23
Q

Rooting reflex

A

A newborn’s tendency to turn the head toward a touch on the cheek.
ex: Helps the baby find the nipple for feeding.

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24
Q

Sucking reflex

A

A newborn reflex to suck on anything that touches the roof of their mouth.
ex: Enables a baby to feed.

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25
Moro reflex
A newborn reflex in response to a sudden loss of support; arms and legs extend. ex: Baby flings arms outward when feeling a sense of falling.
26
Grasping reflex
A newborn's tendency to grasp objects placed in their hands. ex: Baby tightly holds a finger placed in their palm.
27
Critical period
A specific time during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned. ex: Language development is easier in early childhood.
28
Imprinting
The process by which some animals form strong attachments during a critical period. ex: Ducklings following the first moving object they see.
29
Schema
A mental framework that organizes and interprets information. ex: A child has a schema for 'dog' that includes four legs and a tail.
30
Assimilation
Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas. ex: A child sees a zebra and calls it a horse.
31
Accommodation
Adjusting schemas to fit new information. ex: Learning that a zebra is different from a horse and creating a new category.
32
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s stage (0–2 years) where infants experience the world through senses and actions. ex: Infants learn object permanence during this stage.
33
Preoperational stage
Piaget’s stage (2–7 years) characterized by symbolic thinking but egocentrism and lack of conservation. ex: Children may think a tall, narrow glass has more water than a short, wide glass.
34
Concrete operational stage
Piaget’s stage (7–11 years) where children gain logical thinking about concrete events. ex: Understanding that quantity stays the same despite shape changes.
35
Formal operational stage
Piaget’s stage (12+ years) where abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking develop. ex: Adolescents can solve algebraic problems and think about moral dilemmas.
36
Object permanence
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. ex: A baby searches for a hidden toy, knowing it still exists.
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Conservation
Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. ex: Knowing that water in a tall glass is the same amount as in a short glass.
38
Egocentrism
Inability to see the world from others’ perspectives (common in preoperational stage). ex: A child assumes everyone sees what they see.
39
Theory of mind
The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own. ex: Realizing a friend may be sad even if you are happy.
40
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s concept of what a learner can do with guidance but not yet independently. ex: A child can solve a puzzle with a parent’s help.
41
Scaffolding
Support given to a learner that is gradually removed as they become more competent. ex: A teacher guiding a student through a math problem step by step.
42
Phoneme
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language. ex: The sound 'b' in 'bat' is a phoneme.
43
Morpheme
The smallest unit of meaning in a language. ex: 'Un-' or '-ed' in 'unfolded' are morphemes.
44
Grammar
The system of rules that allows communication. ex: Word order and sentence structure rules.
45
Syntax
The rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences. ex: 'The dog chased the cat' follows English syntax.
46
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences.\nex: Understanding that 'I ran a mile' describes distance traveled.
47
Language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky’s hypothetical brain mechanism that facilitates language learning. ex: Children naturally learn language without formal instruction.
48
Babbling
The stage of speech development (around 4–6 months) where infants make meaningless sounds. ex: Babies say 'ba-ba' or 'da-da'.
49
One-word/holophrastic stage
Stage where children speak mostly single words. ex: Saying 'milk' to mean 'I want milk.'
50
Two-word/telegraphic speech
Stage where children speak in two-word sentences, usually nouns and verbs. ex: Saying 'want cookie' instead of a full sentence.
51
Overgeneralization/overregularization
Applying grammatical rules too broadly. ex: Saying 'goed' instead of 'went'.
52
Critical period for language
Optimal window for learning a language, typically early childhood. ex: Children exposed to language early acquire it more easily.
53
Attachment
An emotional bond between an infant and caregiver. ex: A baby cries when separated from their mother.
54
Secure attachment
Attachment style where infants feel safe to explore because caregiver is reliable. ex: Baby happily plays while mother is present and seeks comfort when she returns.
55
Insecure attachment
Attachment style where infants are anxious or avoidant. ex: Baby clings excessively or ignores caregiver upon return.
56
Contact comfort
Pleasure derived from physical touch. ex: Harlow’s monkeys preferred soft cloth mothers over wire mothers with food.
57
Temperament
A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. ex: Some babies are naturally calm, others fussy.
58
Trust vs. mistrust
Erikson’s first stage (0–1 year) focusing on whether infants feel their needs will be met. ex: A baby develops trust when fed consistently.
59
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
Erikson’s stage (1–3 years) where children learn independence. ex: A toddler learns to dress themselves, gaining confidence.
60
Initiative vs. guilt
Erikson’s stage (3–6 years) where children assert control over the environment. ex: A child starts a game with peers.
61
Industry vs. inferiority
Erikson’s stage (6–12 years) focusing on mastering skills and productivity. ex: A student learns to read and gains confidence in school.
62
Self-concept
An individual’s understanding of themselves. ex: A child knows they are friendly and like playing soccer.
63
Authoritative
Parenting style that is both demanding and responsive. ex: Parents set rules but explain them and encourage independence.
64
Authoritarian
Parenting style that is highly demanding but not responsive. ex: Parents enforce strict rules without explanation.
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Permissive
Parenting style that is responsive but not demanding. ex: Parents allow children to make many decisions without guidance.
66
Neglectful
Parenting style that is neither demanding nor responsive. ex: Parents are uninvolved and provide little attention.
67
Social referencing
Using others’ emotional reactions to guide one’s own behavior.ex: A child looks to a parent to see if a stranger is safe.
68
Social facilitation
The tendency for performance to improve on simple or well-learned tasks and worsen on difficult tasks when others are watching. ex: A skilled dancer performs better with an audience, but a beginner performs worse due to pressure.
69
Social loafing
The tendency for people to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone. ex: In a group project, one member barely contributes because they assume others will do the work.
70
Deindividuation
When people feel anonymous in a group and lose their usual self-control, causing them to act in ways they normally wouldn’t. ex: People in a crowd may shout insults or vandalize even though they wouldn't do that on their own.
71
Group polarization
The strengthening of a group’s initial attitudes after group discussion. ex: A political discussion group becomes more extreme after talking with like-minded members.
72
Groupthink
When the desire for group harmony overrides realistic evaluation of alternatives. ex: A team approves a risky plan because no one wants to disagree.
73
Culture
The shared beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors passed from one generation to the next. ex: Some cultures emphasize independence or interdependence.
74
Tight culture
A culture with strict social norms and low tolerance for deviance. ex: Singapore has strict expectations about public behavior.
75
Loose culture
A culture with weaker norms and a high tolerance for deviation. ex: The U.S. tends to encourage individuality and diverse behavior.
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