1
Q
This system provides exchange for O2 and CO2 to and from the blood
A
Respiratory System
2
Q
Respiratory organs:
A
- Lungs
- Branching system of bronchial tubes
3
Q
Air moves through the lungs by a?
A
ventilating mechanism
4
Q
Ventilating Mechanism involves:
A
- Thoracic cage
- Intercostal muscles
- Diaphragm
- Elastic components of lung tissue
5
Q
Anatomically, the respiratory tract has:
A
- Upper Respiratory Tract
- Lower Respiratory Tract
6
Q
Upper Respiratory Tract Includes all structures from the?
A
nose to the larynx
7
Q
Filters, warms, and humidifies air; also involved in smell and voice production.
A
Upper Respiratory Tract
8
Q
Lower Respiratory Tract Includes the structures from the?
A
trachea downward
9
Q
Conducts air to the lungs and performs gas exchange.
A
Lower Respiratory Tract
10
Q
Histologically and Functionally, the respiratory tract has:
A
- Conducting Portion
- Respiratory Portion
11
Q
Consists of all components that condition air and bring into the lungs.
A
Conducting Portion
12
Q
Conducting Portion includes:
A
- Nasal cavities
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- terminal bronchioles.
13
Q
- Cleans and humidifies inspired air.
- Provides the conduits for air movement to and from alveoli.
A
Conducting Portion
14
Q
Combination of cartilage, collagen and elastic fibers, and smooth muscle provides both rigid structural support and necessary flexibility and extensibility to ensure uninterrupted supply of air.
A
Conducting Portion
15
Q
Where system’s main function of gas exchange occurs.
A
Respiratory Portion
16
Q
Respiratory Portion includes:
A
- Respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveoli
17
Q
The cellular sites for the exchange of O2 and CO2 between inspired air and blood.
A
Alveoli
18
Q
Small, air-filled, sac-like structure which make up most of the lung structure.
A
Alveoli
19
Q
The right and left nasal cavities each have two parts:
A
- Vestibule
- Internal nasal cavity
20
Q
external, dilated part of nasal cavities
A
Vestibule
21
Q
deeper part of nasal cavities
A
Internal nasal cavity
22
Q
The skin of the nose extends into the vestibule, containing:
A
- Sweat glands
- Sebaceous glands
- Vibrissae
23
Q
(coarse hairs) – help filter dust and particles.
A
Vibrissae
24
Q
Inside the _______, the lining changes from keratinized skin to pseudostratified columnar epithelium typical of the nasal cavity
A
vestibule
25
Nasal Cavities is found within the skull, divided by the?
nasal septum
26
Each side of the nasal cavity has three ________ projecting from the lateral wall.
conchae (turbinates)
27
These increase the surface area for air conditioning functions
conchae (turbinates)
28
The ______ has a lamina propria rich in blood vessels and glands
nasal mucosa
29
The _____ traps dust and microorganisms and contains IgA antibodies for immune defense.
mucus
30
_______ warm the air; __________ and ________moisten and filter it.
Capillaries, seromucous glands and goblet cells
31
Types of Epithelium
1. Respiratory epithelium
2. Olfactory epithelium
32
Middle and inferior conchae
Respiratory epithelium
33
Roof and superior conchae: (for the sense of smell)
Olfactory epithelium
34
Found in most parts of the nasal cavities and conducting airways.
Respiratory Epithelium
35
Respiratory Epithelium Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with several cell types:
1. Ciliated columnar cells
2. Goblet cells
3. Brush cells
4. Small granule cells (DNES cells)
5. Basal cells
36
Most numerous; help move mucus toward the pharynx.
Ciliated columnar cells
37
Produce mucus that traps dust and microbes.
Goblet cells
38
Have microvilli; act as sensory receptors.
Brush cells
39
Contain hormones and neuropeptides that regulate airway activity
Small granule cells (DNES cells)
40
Stem cells that replace other epithelial cells.
Basal cells
41
- Filters, warms, and moistens inspired air.
- Cilia and mucus trap and remove dust and pathogens
Respiratory Epithelium
42
- Blood vessels in the lamina propria warm the air.
- IgA and immune cells provide defense against infection.
Respiratory Epithelium
43
Located in the roof of the nasal cavity and on the superior conchae.
* Specialized for the sense of smell.
Olfactory Epithelium
44
Olfactory Epithelium is Made of pseudostratified columnar epithelium with three main cell types:
1. Olfactory neurons
2. Supporting cells
3. Basal cells
45
Detect odor molecules; bipolar nerve cells with cilia
Olfactory neurons
46
Provide metabolic and physical support to neurons
Supporting cells
47
Stem cells that regenerate olfactory neurons.
Basal cells
48
Converts odor molecules into nerve signals sent to the olfactory bulb in the brain.
Olfactory Epithelium
49
_________ on olfactory neurons increase surface area for detecting smells.
cilia
50
________ in olfactory epithelium maintain a healthy environment for sensory function
Supporting cells
51
The _______ of the olfactory epithelium contains **olfactory glands (Bowman’s glands)**
lamina propria
52
These are large serous glands that produce a watery secretion.
lamina propria
53
Their secretions help wash away old odor molecules, allowing new odorants to reach the olfactory receptors
Lamina Propria of the Olfactory Epithelium
54
This continuous flow of fluid also helps keep the ______moist for proper smell detection.
olfactory cilia
55
air-filled cavities located in the frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones.
Paranasal Sinuses
56
They are lined with thin respiratory epithelium that has fewer goblet cells and small glands.
Paranasal Sinuses
57
the lamina propria of these sinuses connects directly to the?
periosteum (bone covering).
58
The sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity through ??
small openings
59
Mucus produced in the sinuses moves into the _________- by the action of ciliated epithelial cells.
nasal passages
60
The nasal cavities open posteriorly into the ________, the first part of the pharynx.
nasopharynx
61
The nasopharynx is continuous caudally with the _________, the posterior part of the oral cavity leading to the larynx and esophagus.
oropharynx (throat)
62
Unlike the stratified squamous epithelium of the oropharynx, the
nasopharynx lining is?
respiratory epithelium.
63
mucosa of pharynx contains the _________ and __________, which connect to each middle ear cavity.
medial pharyngeal tonsil and the openings of the two auditory tubes
64
A short (4 cm × 4 cm) passage for air between the pharynx and the trachea.
Larynx
65
hyaline cartilages of the larynx
1. thyroid
2. cricoid
3. inferior arytenoid cartilages
66
smaller elastic cartilages of the larynx
1. epiglottis
2. cuneiform
3. corniculate
4. superior arytenoid cartilages
67
It maintains an open airway; movements of cartilages by skeletal muscles participate in sound production during phonation.
Larynx
68
Connect all the cartilages
Ligaments
69
Flattened structure projecting from the upper rim of the larynx; prevents swallowed food or fluid from entering that passage.
Epiglottis
70
Has stratified squamous epithelium: at variable points on its laryngeal surface this epithelium undergoes a transition to ciliated pseudostratified columnar (respiratory) epithelium.
Upper or Lingual Surface
71
It is where mixed mucous and serous glands are found beneath the epithelium
Lamina Propria
72
Projects bilaterally into the lumen with two pairs of folds separated by a narrow space or ventricle.
Mucosa
73
2 Pairs of Folds of the epiglottis
1. Vestibular folds
2. Vocal folds or cords
74
the upper pair, the immovable folds partly covered with typical respiratory epithelium
Vestibular folds
75
important for phonation or sound production.
Vocal folds or cords
76
Each fold is covered with __________ that protects the mucosa from abrasion and desiccation from rapid air movement
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
77
Dense regular bundle of elastic connective tissue supporting the free edge of each vocal fold.
Vocal ligament
78
Large bundles of striated fibers deep to the mucosa that allow each vocal fold to move
Vocalis muscle
79
Muscles of the larynx Draw the paired vocal folds together (adduction), narrowing the opening between them, the?
rima glottidis
80
Causes the adducted vocal folds to vibrate and produce sound.
Air expelled from the lungs
81
Altered by changing the tension on the vocal folds, the width of the rima glottidis, and the volume of air expelled
Sound pitch and quality
82
Contribute to the resonance of sound produced in the larynx.
Vestibular folds and ventricles
83
Speech is Produced when sounds made in the larynx are modified by movements of the?
pharynx, tongue, and lips.
84
Larger, with longer vocal folds after puberty, causing men’s voices typically to have a deeper range than women’s voices
Male larynx
85
Length of trachea
10–12 cm in adults
86
trachea is lined with?
respiratory mucosa
87
contains seromucous glands → produce watery
mucus
lamina propria of trachea
88
it has about a dozen C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
trachea
89
trachea is located between?
submucosa & adventitia
90
function of trachea
keeps tracheal lumen open
91
Open ends of cartilage face the esophagus
posterior surface of trachea
92
trachea is bridged by?
1. Trachealis muscle
2. Fibroelastic tissue attached to perichondrium
93
Relaxes during swallowing
→ allows esophagus to bulge into
trachea
→ elastic layer prevents over-
distention
trachealis muscle
94
Contracts during cough reflex
→ narrows lumen
→ increases air velocity
→ helps expel mucus or foreign material
trachealis muscle
95
is lined by typical respiratory epithelium underlain by connective tissue of the lamina propria and seromucous glands in the lamina propria and submucosa.
trachea
96
Adjacent to the submucosa are the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage (C) covered by perichondrium
trachea
97
The trachea divides into_________, each entering a lung at the hilum along with arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels.
two primary bronchi
98
These bronchi branch repeatedly, forming the__________ that distributes air throughout the lungs.
bronchial tree
99
bronchial tree components
1. Primary (main) bronchi
2. Secondary (lobar) bronchi
3. Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
100
Each bronchiole enters a pulmonary lobule, where it branches into 5–7?
terminal bronchioles.
101
Tertiary bronchi divide into smaller tubes called??
bronchioles
102
each supplies a bronchopulmonary segment, which has its own connective tissue capsule and blood supply (about 10–12 segments per lung)
Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
103
each Secondary (lobar) bronchi supplies one?
pulmonary lobe
104
how many Secondary (lobar) bronchi are there in right and left lung?
3 in the right lung
2 in the left lung
105
one enters each lung
Primary (main) bronchi
106
it mark the end of the conducting portion of the respiratory tract.
terminal bronchioles
107
pyramid-shaped, with the apex facing the hilum and thin connective tissue separating lobules
lobule
108
Each _______ branches repeatedly, getting smaller (1–2 mm in diameter).
primary bronchus
109
___________decrease as bronchi get smaller, while _________ become more abundant.
- Cartilage and connective tissue,
- smooth muscle, elastic fibers, and MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue)
110
conduct air deeper into the lungs and help with airway defense through MALT
bronchi
111
small intralobular airways, 1 mm or less in diameter, formed after about the 10th branching of bronchi.
bronchioles
112
They lack cartilage and mucosal glands, but have smooth muscle and connective tissue.
bronchioles
113
The ______ of large bronchi resembles that of the trachea, except for differences in cartilage and smooth muscle organization.
mucosa
114
large bronchioles is lined with ciliated epithelium?
pseudostratified columnar
115
small bronchioles is lined with ciliated epithelium?
simple columnar or cuboidal
116
continue air conduction and help in mucociliary clearance (moving mucus upward)
bronchioles
117
The last part of the conducting system before gas exchange begins.
Terminal Bronchioles
118
terminal bronchioles is Lined with cuboidal epithelial cells containing_________ — non-ciliated, dome-shaped cells with secretory granules
club (Clara) cells
119
Club Cells Secrete ________ to reduce surface tension.
surfactant lipoproteins and mucins
120
club cells Detoxify inhaled substances using?
smooth ER enzyme
121
club cells Release______ for local immune defense.
antimicrobial peptides and cytokines
122
terminal bronchioles also Contain ________, _______, and _______ for epithelial repair.
brush cells, DNES small granule cells, and a few stem cells
123
The lamina propria of terminal bronchioles has elastic fibers and smooth muscle, forming?
mucosal folds.
124
control contraction of smooth muscles in both bronchi and bronchioles
autonomic nerves
125
Each terminal bronchiole divides into 2 or more?
respiratory bronchioles
126
Marks the beginning of the respiratory region, where gas exchange starts.
Respiratory Bronchioles
127
______ of respiratory bronchioles is similar to that of terminal bronchioles but has openings to alveoli.
Mucosa
128
mainly club cells and simple squamous cells at alveolar openings.
epithelium of respiratory bronchioles
129
composed of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue.
lamina propria of respiratory bronchioles
130
become more numerous and closer together as it goes deeper
Alveoli
131
Formed from the distal ends of respiratory bronchioles.
Alveolar Ducts
132
Alveolar Ducts Walls are fully lined by openings of?
alveoli
133
very thin simple squamous cells to allow gas diffusion.
epithelium of alveolar ducts
134
contains a thin layer of smooth muscle, with elastic and collagen fibers for support.
lamina propria of alveolar ducts
135
conducts air into clusters of alveoli where gas exchange occurs
Alveolar Ducts
136
Clusters of alveoli located at the ends of?
alveolar ducts
137
is very thin, composed mainly of elastic and reticular fibers.
Lamina propria of Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli
138
surround each alveolus for efficient gas exchange.
Capillary networks
139
Main site of O₂ and CO₂ exchange between air and blood
Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli
140
Small saclike air spaces (~200 µm) branching from bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and sacs.
alveoli
141
Alveoli has about ______ alveoli per lung, providing ~75 m² surface area for gas exchange.
200 million
142
Exchange of O₂ and CO₂ between air and blood.
Alveoli
143
contain elastic fibers for expansion/recoil and reticular fibers to prevent collapse.
Walls of alveoli (interalveolar septa)
144
Surrounded by rich capillary networks for efficient gas diffusion
alveoli
145
Gas exchange occurs through three thin layers:
1.Alveolar epithelium (Type I alveolar cells)
2.Fused basal laminae of alveolar and capillary cells
3.Capillary endothelium (thin, continuous cells)
146
Total thickness of Blood-Air Barrier (Respiratory Membrane) that allows rapid diffusion of gases.
0.1–1.5 µm
147
______ and _____connect neighboring alveoli for air pressure
equalization
Macrophages (dust cells) and pores of Kohn
148
Alveolar Cell Types
1. Type I Alveolar Cells (Pneumocytes)
2. Type II Alveolar Cells (Septal Cells)
149
- Flat, thin cells covering 95% of alveolar surface.
- Function: Form the gas exchange barrier.
- Joined by tight junctions to prevent fluid leakage.
Type I Alveolar Cells (Pneumocytes)
150
- Cuboidal cells located between Type I cells.
- Function: Secrete pulmonary surfactant (from lamellar bodies) to lower surface tension and prevent alveolar collapse.
- Also replace damaged alveolar cells by mitosis
Type II Alveolar Cells (Septal Cells)
151
Secreted by: Type II alveolar cells
Pulmonary Surfactant
152
Main components of Pulmonary Surfactant
1. DPPC (dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine)
2. Cholesterol
3. Surfactant proteins:
a. SP-A, SP-D
b. SP-B, SP-C
153
surfactant protein responsible for immune protection
SP-A, SP-D
154
surfactant protein responsible for maintaining surfactant film structure
SP-B, SP-C
155
Lowers surface tension to prevent alveolar collapse during exhalation
Pulmonary surfactant
156
Pulmonary surfactant Forms late in fetal life; lack of it causes?
neonatal respiratory distress syndrome
157
Found in alveoli and interalveolar septa.
- Function: Phagocytose dust, debris, and old RBCs (hemosiderin).
Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells)
158
they act like stem cells in the lungs. They can make new cells when needed.
Type II alveolar cells
159
Fates:
- Migrate up bronchioles → expelled via mucociliary escalator
- Drain through lymphatic vessels
- Remain in connective tissue
Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells)
159
Help in lung defense and cleaning alveoli
Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells)
160
When Type I or Type II cells are damaged (for example, by smoke or toxic gases), _______ divide to replace them.
Type II cells
161
Normally, about 1% of______ renew every day, keeping the alveolar lining healthy.
Type II cells
162
During serious lung injury or stress, special ______ also help make new alveolar
cells.
lung stem cells
163
This repair process keeps gas exchange efficient and helps the ____ heal after damage
lungs
164
Lungs have two circulations
1. Pulmonary circulation
2. Bronchial circulation
165
O₂-depleted blood for gas exchange
Pulmonary circulation
166
O₂-rich blood for nourishment of lung tissue
Bronchial circulation
167
thin-walled (low pressure: 25/5 mmHg)
Pulmonary arteries & veins
168
Pulmonary artery enters at _____ , follows bronchial tree
hilum
169
At _______ , arteries branch into dense capillary networks surrounding alveoli
respiratory bronchioles
170
collect blood from alveolar capillaries
venules
171
Found in lung parenchyma, away from airways
Pulmonary Veins
172
leave lobules and follow bronchial tree → hilum
Pulmonary Veins
173
_______ enter at hilum, branch with bronchial tree
Bronchial arteries
174
• Supply lung tissue down to respiratory bronchioles
• Anastomose with pulmonary artery branches → blood mixing in capillary networks
Bronchial Circulation
175
originate in bronchiolar connective tissue
Lymphatics
176
• Deep network → follows bronchi, bronchioles, pulmonary vessels → hilum nodes
• Superficial network → drains visceral pleura near lung surface
• Absent beyond alveolar ducts
Lymphatic Drainage
177
Nerve Supply of the Lungs
Autonomic fibers (parasympathetic & sympathetic)
178
Control smooth muscle contraction → airway diameter regulation
Autonomic fibers
179
carry poorly localized pain sensations
Visceral afferent fibers
180
________ mainly in connective tissue around larger bronchi; exit via hilum
Nerves
181
A serous membrane that covers the lung’s outer surface and the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
Pleura
182
- The membrane attached to the lung tissue.
- Its elastic fibers are continuous with those of the pulmonary parenchyma.
Visceral pleura
183
The membrane lining the thoracic walls.
parietal pleura
184
Both layers of pleura are continuous at the?
hilum
185
They are both composed of simple squamous mesothelial cells on a connective tissue layer containing collagen and elastic fibers
Parietal and visceral pleura
186
- Narrow, lies between the parietal and visceral layers.
- Lined with the mesothelial cells producing a thin film of serous fluid.
Pleural cavity
187
Acts as a lubricant, facilitating the smooth sliding of one surface over the other during respiratory
movements
Serous fluid
188
Pathologic state of pleural cavity may contain?
liquid or air
189
The serosa of the pleural cavity is?
water-permeable
190
____ exuded from blood plasma commonly
accumulates in this cavity during inflammation and other abnormal conditions
Fluid
191
- A condition of a partially or completely collapsed lung caused by air trapped in the pleural cavity.
- Blunt or penetrating trauma to the chest.
- Produce shortness of breath and hypoxia
PNEUMOTHORAX
192
- Inflammation of the pleura.
- Most commonly caused by an acute viral infection or pneumonia
PLEURITIS OR PLEURISY
193
- Fluid buildup in the pleural cavity.
- Produce shortness of breath.
- Can be one result of inflamed pleura
PLEURAL EFFUSION
194
in inhalation, Contraction of ________ elevates the ribs.
external intercostal muscles
195
in inhalation, Contraction of ______ lowers the bottom of the thoracic cavity.
diaphragm
196
- Bronchi and bronchioles increase in diameter and length.
- Respiratory portion enlarges due to the expansion of alveolar ducts.
inhalation
197
- Individual alveoli enlarge slightly.
- Elastic fibers of the pulmonary parenchyma are stretched
inhalation
198
- Lungs retract passively due to muscle relaxation.
- Elastic fibers return to unstretched condition
Exhalation
199
- One of the most common forms of this disease.
- A disease where malignant (cancerous) cells grow uncontrollably in the tissues of the lungs
LUNG CANCER
200
- Closely correlated with a history of smoking.
- Arises most often from epithelial cells of segmental bronchi
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
201
- Most common lung cancer in nonsmokers.
- Arises usually from epithelial cells more peripherally, in bronchioles and alveoli
ADENOCARCINOMA
202
Less common, but highly malignant form of lung cancer.
SMALL CELL CARCINOMA
203
SMALL CELL CARCINOMA Develops after neoplastic transformation of small granule ________ in bronchial respiratory epithelium
Kulchitsky cells
Histology
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