1
Q
What is the major definition of problem solving ?
A
- cognitive processing transforming a given situation into a goal situation when no obvious method of solution is available
- subjective
2
Q
What are well defined problem ?
A
- All aspects of the problem are clearly specified
- Goal and instructions are clear
3
Q
What are ill defined problems ?
A
- Not specified solutions
- Goal and instructions are not clear
- > Most everyday problem
4
Q
What are knowledge rich problems ?
A
- can only be solved via background knowledge
5
Q
What are knowledge lean problems ?
A
- can be solved with no prior knowledge
- all necessary info are provided
6
Q
What are charcteristics of problems solving ?
A
- its purposeful (goal directed)
- involves controlled rather then automatic processed
- A problem only exist if someone lecks the relvant knowledge to get a solution
7
Q
What are the four kind of problems ?
A
- Well defined
- ill defined
- knowledge rich prob
- knowledge lean prob
8
Q
What are the three influencing factors regarding problem solving ?
A
- Past experience
- Incubation (how long u ignore the problem)
- Expertise
9
Q
Why is past experience so key for problem solving but why can it also be dangerous ?
A
- increase ability
- Dangerous because of functional fixedness and einstellung
10
Q
What is functional fixedness ?
A
- fail to solve a problem because we assume from past experience that any given object has a limited number of uses
11
Q
What is Einstellung ?
A
- mental set in which people use a familiar strategy even where there is a simpler alternative or the problem cannot be solved using it
12
Q
Why is incubation so important for problem solving ?
A
- it is easier to solve a problem when it is put aside for some times
- Higher effect on creative problem solving
- Example would be sleeping
13
Q
What is wallas information on incubation and what is simons opinion on it ?
A
- W: Subconscious keeps proccesing even if conscious works on something else
- S: missleading info will be forgotton
14
Q
Why is being an expertise good for problem solving ?
A
- because of routine expertise
- Adaptive expertise
- Chunking template theory !
15
Q
What is the chunking and template theory in relationship to expertise ? ?
A
- Chunking is old theory of memory storage ->
- chunks are larger in expertise then in non = more meory storage is possible
- Template = New theory more complex
- says that a chunk exist out of a core (so the fixed info and of slots which are more variable by expertise = more additional info can be stored
16
Q
What is routine expertise ?
A
- using acquired knowledge to solve familiar problems efficiently
17
Q
What could be a an issue of problem solving ?
A
- Mental site (mind thinks in a certain way which is not useful )
- Perceptual set (tendency to see object in a certain fixed way)
- incomplete or incorrect representation
- lack of expertise
18
Q
What is the behaviorism theory regarding problem solving ?
A
- Thorndike
- > Trial and error learning = solution reached bey random reponses
- reproductive thinking
19
Q
What is adaptive expertise ?
A
- using acquired knowledge to develop strategies for dealing with novel problems
20
Q
What is reproductive thinking ?
A
- use of previous experiences/ knowledge to solve a current problem
21
Q
What is the gestalt theory of how to solve problems ?
A
- based on insighst
- productive thinking
- Example is the two string task
- involves cognitive conflict
22
Q
What is insight ?
A
- “ahaaaa experience
- the experience of suddenly realising how to solve a problem
23
Q
Hww do we gain insight based on the gestalt people ?
A
- usimg contradictions -> thinks that stand out against our expectation
- Connections
- Creativity
24
Q
What is the conscious cue effect ?
A
- speeding up the procces of insight by highlighting certain objects which are neccesary !
25
What is the cognitive conflict ?
- replacing one way of thinking about a problem with a new more efficient way to gain insight
26
What is the representational change theory ?
- based on gestalt but more detailed explanation on how to gain insight
- aso works with insight to solve certain problems
27
What are the Ways to gain insight regarding the representational approach ?
- It’s abput the representation
| - changing up the representation
28
How do we change the reprensentation according to the Represntational approach ?
1. Elaboration/ additional info -> adding information
2. Constraint relaxation -> any inhibition are removed
3. Re encoding; some aspect of the problem is reinterpreted
29
What are some limitations regarding The gestalt approach ?
- Not specific enough also regarding cognitive processe on how to gain insight
30
What are some limitations on the representational change theory ?
- Often not possible to predcit 5W question regarding representational change
- does not emphasised individual differences
31
What is the problem spaced hypothesis regarding problem solving ?
- does not focus on insights
- searching trough problem space
- Humans use heuristics
- only works for well defined problem
32
What is a problem space ?
- Alternative to insight theorys
- description of all the possible states/phases that can occur in a problem situation (initial state, goal state and operators (steps and rules)
- only good for well defined problems
33
Why do humans use heuristic and not the complet problem space ?
- ST and LTM it is impossible to keep the problem space/attention in mind
34
What kind of heuristic do we us e ?
1. Means-ends analysis
2. Hill climbing
3. Progress monitoring
4. Generate and test techniques
5. Backtracking
35
What does means ends analysis mean ?
- creating a sub-goal to reduce the difference between the current situation & goal state
36
What does hill climbing
| mean ?
- if you have doubt on how to get to the solution choose a goal which brings u closer
37
What does prgress monitoring mean ?
- slow progress toward solution leads to the adaption of a different strategy
38
What does generate and test techniques mean?
- Generating possible solutions and then testing them (so multiple)
39
What does Backtracking mean ?
- Problem solver keeps track of all assumption made before, possible to go back
40
What are some limitations regarding the problem space hypothesis ?
- well defined problem are not everyday problem
- not for insight problems
- de emphasizes individuell differences
41
What is cognitive misserliness regarding problem solving ?
- a technique to solve a problem which focus on using as less energy as possible
42
What is analogical problem solving ?
- using problems from the past to solve current problems
43
What is a postitive or negative transfer ?
- Positive transfer = past experience help
| - Negative transfer = Past experience do not help
44
What is far transfer and what is near transfer ?
- Far transfer: postive transfer to disimlar context
| - Near transfer: positive transfer to a smilar context
45
What are the three dimensions determing the distance betweeen two problems ?
1. task similarity = structure and propetires
2. context similarity = location, people
3. time interval= the period of time difference between past and present
46
What are some limitations regarding the analogical problem ?
1. We do not know the underlying mechanism of transferring
2. No focus on individual differences
3. the match of past and current problem is difficult in everyday life
47
How do we become an expert ?
1. Task is at an appropriate level of difficulty
2. needs feedback
3. chances to repeat
4. oppotunity to correct errors
48
Why is it good to be an expert ?
- Experts can get round the limited capacity of working memory -> Long-term working memory
- not better WM but a combination of WM and LTM
49
What are some limitations regarding practice leading to expert ?
- Deliberate practice is not the only factor to become an expert
- No innate talent
- no motivational factor
50
What are the brain region which are connected to insight knowledge ?
- right hemisphere (general form problem solving)
- Anterior superior temporal gyrus (only active in insights)
- Anterior cingulate cortex activated during cognitive conflict
- prefrontal cortex (general for complex problem solving)
51
Which brain region is active during problem solving without insight ?
- occipital area
52
What are the cognitive traps regarding problem solving ?
- top down processing
- inattentional Blindness
- Conformation BIas
- Fixation
- Sunk coast trap
53
What is top down processing ?And how can it be solved ?
- Leads to encoding failure -> forgots important deatails
| - Solution: Enable botton up processing trough multiple observer
54
What is Inattentional Blindness? And how can it be solved ?
- Failure to see things because attention is directed elsewhere
- look for the unexpected
55
What is Conformation Bias ? And how can it be solved ?
- Dismiss data that contradicts prior beliefs
| - Solution: challenges pre-existing beliefs
56
What is fixation? And how can it be solved ?
- Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
- Solution: reframing of problem statement
- Remove power of social influence by writing down ideas prior to group session
57
What is the Sunk Cost Trap? And how can it be solved ?
- refers to a tendency for people follow through an activity that is not meeting their expectations. This is because of the time and/or money they have already invested.
- Solution allways do parallel protoping !
58
What is creativity ?
- Creativity is the ability to produce work that
is both novel and context appropriate
- It needs to be original and effective
59
What support creativity ?
| personal characteristic
- Willignes to grow / take risk
- Social and political skills
- Openness to experience, networking skills
- Mental flexability
- Cognitive ability
- Ability to associate
- Self regulation
- motivation
60
What is not helping creativity ?
- time pressure
- Old habbits
- fear of unknown
- Uncertainty avoidance
- Big ego
61
How does age and emotion influence creativity ?
- age does not play a huge deal regarding creativity
- Negative mood = good for persitance
- Positive mood = flexability
62
Which factors regarding contextual info play a role in combination with creativity ?
- Team collaboration
- Team diversity
- Social networks
63
What are some characteristics rgarding the Task social and physical enviorment ?
1/2. Social and task enviorment
- Time and ressources
- Risk taking should be supported
- challenging work
- collaboration
- Debate (conflict)
- postitive relationships
3. Pysical enviormnet:
- color, plants, windows
