1
Q
What is reasoning ?
A
-Deriving conclusions and making inferences
2
Q
What are the two assumption regarding reasoning ?
A
- following the rule of logic
- humans are rational
3
Q
What is the problem with reasoning ?
A
- Humans are not rational
4
Q
What do u humans use instead of reasoning and why do they do so ?
A
- Decision making
- Becasue usually there are not all info available so they use probalistic and heuristic
5
Q
What is inductive reasoning ?
A
- Botton up approach
- > from specific to general
- You observe specific outcomes and conclude them for a generalized form
- which means they are logicly true but not have to be realisticly use
- uses inductive strength
6
Q
What is inductive strength ?
A
- when it is improbable for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false
7
Q
What is deductive reasoning ?
A
- from general to specific
- logic and realisic true
- uses deductive validity
8
Q
What is deductive validity ?
A
- When premises are true and u reason according to the logic principles then your conclusion can not be wrong
9
Q
What is analogical reasoning ?
A
- Try to solve a current problem by retrieving information about a similar problem that was successfully solved in the past
- Example: Completing a matrix
- Part of inductive reasoning
10
Q
What did they figure out while testing via hypothesis testing ? Also give one example
A
- People directly follow analogical reasoning
- which lead to confirmation bias
and Matching bias - Example: 2-4-6 Wason task
11
Q
What is conformation bias ?
A
- people try to confirm their rule to be true rather than trying to test/ falsify it
12
Q
What is matching bias ?
A
- the tendency to select those cards matching the items/numbers explicitly mentioned in the rule.
13
Q
What increases task performances ?
A
- deontic rules ! not indictaive rules
14
Q
What are deontic rules and what are inductuve rules ?
A
- deontic = “must” as an indicator
- indicative rules = “can” as indicator
15
Q
What is conditional/propositional reasoning ? (Name to examples of propositional reasoning)
A
- A form of deductive reasoning
- Propostions or propositional reasoning can be either true or false
- follows a certain condition to be true !
- Example: Modus ponen Modus tollens
16
Q
What is Modus ponen ?
A
- If A then B
- Ex: if it is raining then nancy gets wet.
- So when it rains then nancy get wet
17
Q
What is modus tollens ?
A
If B is not then A is not
- > Ex: Its raining = nancy wet
- not wet = not raining
18
Q
What is denying the antecedent?
A
- If A is not then b is not
Ex: it is raining = nancy is wet
-> not raining = not wet - Part of conditional reasoning
19
Q
What is affirming the consequent ?
A
- Part of conditional reasoning
- If the last part is true the first part does not has to be true
20
Q
How does conditional reasoning become more difficult ?
A
- adding additional argumments
- not using counterexamples
- low working memory
- compound connectivities
21
Q
What are compound connectivities ?
A
- more complicated proposition by using connectives such as “ and , or , if then “
22
Q
What is the belief bias ?
A
- tendency to accept invalid conclusions that are believable rather than believe valid conclusions that are unbelievable
23
Q
What is syllogistic reasoning and why is it not that valid ?
A
- Based on two statment and one conclusion
- They follow the rule of logic but -> people do not allways use logic rather heuristic which leads to belief bias
- Part of deductie reasoning
24
Q
What are some facts about formal reasoning ?
A
- All premises are suplied
- only one correct answer
- methods to solve the problem exist
- it is known when he problem is solved
- problems are solved for own sake
25
What are some facts about informal everyday reasoning ?
- some premises are not suplied
- several answers are possible
- not realy an existing method
- not known when problem is solved
- problems are often solved to achieve other goals
26
Why do we use informal reasoning more ?
| And where do we most likly use informal reasoning ?
- cuase we rather work with probalistic
- because we are bias by prior beliefs and prior conviction
- Where: it occurs in argumentation
27
Why do premises make reasoning more difficult ?
- phrasing makes reasoning easier or more difficult
- premises can have different meanings which is why people get confused
- the content has an impact on how easy will be understands
28
What is the belivability effect?
- people are likely to judge as valid any conclusion that reinforces their initial assumption
29
What brain regions play a role in reasoning ?
- Left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca’s area!) deductive reasoning
- Left dorsolateral prefrontal gyrus inductive reasoning
- incorrect decision (and belief bias) -> ventral medial prefrontal cortex
30
Why do we use religion ?
- Lack of specific info about processes
| - Religious belief emerges through intuitive processes (System 1 ) but can be inhubited by system 2
31
What is the correlation between analytic and thinking and religious belief ?
- The more analythic thinking the less religious belief and visa versa
- Analytic thinking changes life outcomes
32
How does the way of thinking changes over age ?
- Piaget = From supernatural thinking in young ages to more objective and rational changes in old ages
- Why so ? because -> education has an impact on cognitive development
- Secularisation hypothesis
33
What is the Secularisation hypothesis ?
- with more access to formal education / technology natural explanations will displace supernatural explanations
34
What is explanatory co existence ?
- when natural and supernatural explanations try to explain the same event
35
How did human explain the human orgin the death of humans and illness in humans ?
1. Orgin -No explanatory coexistince
- > mostly supernatural explanations
2. Death = target dependent thinking (some explanatory thinking)
3. illness = Synthetic thinking (a lot of explanatory coexistance)
- > Study was done with people who have low lvl of industrialization and low lvl of christianity
36
What does target dependent thinking mean ?
- both natural and supernatural explanations are used
- But u strictly divide them
- Example: One problem has many sub problems
37
What does Synthetic thinking mean ?
- Using both explanation
| - but doing without knowing (using both)
38
What does Integrated thinking mean ?
- explanations become well-coordinated, use both explanations to interpret multiple levels of causality
39
Does every culture use explanatory coexistance ?
- Explanatory coexistence can be different accros different culture
- human mind often incoroperate both explanation
40
What is the Mental method approach ?
- U need a represntation of the world -> visualization of the world
- you use models to describe premises which lead to a better understanding
41
What is the key component of the Mental methody ?
- working memory capacity
42
What are common sourcess of error regarding the mental method ?
- failure to construct relevant models
| - failure to construct enough models
43
What are the limitations regarding the mental method ?
- Ignores individual differences and dual systems
- Doesn’t explain which kinds of background knowledge are used
- General u would engage in easier processes
44
What is the dual system ?
Use reasoning trough out two stages
- System 1 heuristic processes
- System 2. analytic processes
45
What are the components of the System 1 ?
- Automatic and fast
- intuitive responses
- errors and biases are made within system 1
- conrolls most of our responses
- > mental model also part of System 1
46
What are the components of the system 2 ?
- Conscious process
- Slow reflected and controlled
- Stepping back
- replace maybe the first constructed mental model
- time consuming and effortfull
47
What are the limitations regarding the Dual system model ?
- Oversimplification of the distinction between both systems
| - analytical process do not get explained enough
48
Which process/principles are needed to build a mental model ?
- Relevance principle
- Singularity principle
- Satisfying principle
49
What is the relevance principle ?
- the most relevant mental model based on prior knowledge current context is considered
50
What is the Singularity principle ?
- only a single mental is considered at any given time
51
What is the Satisfying principle ?
- current model is evaluated by system 2 and accepted if good
52
Give anexample regarding inductive reasoning:
- Pauline is a student -> pauline lives in a nice apartment all student live in a nice apartment
