Daoism
A philosophy/religion emphasizing harmony with nature and minimal structure. It opposed rigid systems like Legalism and Confucianism, promoting a simple, unified way of living.
Yellow Turban Rebellion
A Daoist-inspired peasant uprising in Han China protesting taxes and forced labor. Named after yellow headscarves, they saw some success but were ultimately crushed.
Sophist
A professional teacher in ancient Greece known for teaching rhetoric and argumentation; often criticized for prioritizing persuasion over truth.
Philosophy
Literally “love of wisdom,” it is the study of knowledge, ethics, and existence through reasoning.
Socrates (469–399 BCE)
A Greek philosopher who used questioning to seek truth. He valued virtue over wealth and was executed for “corrupting” Athenian youth.
Plato (429–348 BCE)
Student of Socrates; founded the Academy. Focused on ideal forms and believed the material world was an illusion masking deeper truths.
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
Student of Plato; emphasized reason and empirical observation. Founded the Lyceum and tutored Alexander the Great.
The Celts (600–100 BCE)
Indo-European tribal groups with warrior culture, farming economies, and small settlements. Not a unified people; described mostly by outsiders like Romans.
Queen Boudica
British queen of the Iceni tribe who led a rebellion against Roman rule in 60 CE. Initially successful, but defeated. Committed suicide to avoid capture.
Etruscans
A Mediterranean people in Italy from around 2000 BCE who influenced Roman culture, art, and religion.
Res Publica
Latin for “public affair”; refers to the Roman Republic system with elected leaders and a constitution. Influenced modern democratic systems.
Consuls and Senate
Two top Roman officials (consuls) shared power. The Senate (300 members) advised them and handled key political decisions.
Tribal Assembly
A democratic Roman body representing plebeians. Gained power to vote on laws, declare war, and later elect consuls.
Latifundia
Large, slave-run Roman estates owned by elites. Led to decline of small farms and increased wealth inequality.
Spartacus Revolt (73–71 BCE)
A massive slave uprising in southern Italy led by gladiator Spartacus. Initially successful, but crushed by Crassus.
Gaius Julius Caesar
Roman general and politician who became dictator for life. Helped end the Republic. Assassinated in 44 BCE by senators.
Octavian (Augustus)
Caesar’s adopted son who became the first Roman emperor in 27 BCE. Started the Pax Romana and stabilized Rome.
Pax Romana
A 200-year period of peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire (27 BCE–180 CE), beginning with Augustus’s reign.
Vergil and the Aeneid
Roman poet Vergil wrote the Aeneid, an epic glorifying Rome’s origins through the Trojan hero Aeneas, supporting Augustus’s rule.
Edict of Caracalla (212 CE)
A law that granted Roman citizenship to all free men in the empire, aiming to increase tax revenue and unity.
The Tetrarchy
A system started by Diocletian to split power among four rulers (2 Augusti, 2 Caesars) to manage the vast Roman Empire.
Constantine I, the Great – Western and Eastern Empire
Emperor who reunited the empire, founded Constantinople, and promoted Christianity. Governed both eastern and western halves.
Persecution of Christians
Christians were punished for refusing to worship Roman gods/emperor. Seen as threats to Roman unity before religious tolerance.
Edict of Milan (313 CE)
Proclamation by Constantine and Licinius legalizing Christianity and granting religious freedom throughout the Roman Empire.
