Maya Culture
Major Mesoamerican civilization (2000 BCE - 1500s CE) in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize. Known for ceremonial ball games (pitz), bloodletting rituals for religious purposes, advanced mathematics (concept of zero), complex calendar systems, and sophisticated hieroglyphic writing. Built city-states with pyramids and temples.
Mayan Calendar
Complex calendar system combining 260-day sacred calendar (Tzolk’in), 365-day solar calendar (Haab’), and Long Count calendar. Highly accurate astronomical observations. 2012 “end date” was actually end of a calendar cycle (b’ak’tun), not apocalypse prediction. Used for agriculture, religious ceremonies, and recording historical events.
Chavin; Andean civilization (900-200 BCE)
Andean civilization (900-200 BCE) in highland Peru. Known for religious cult center at Chavin de Huantar, stone temple architecture, jaguar iconography, and textile production. Influenced wide area through religious ideology rather than military conquest. Declined around 200 BCE.
Moche
Andean civilization (100-800 CE) on north coast of Peru. Highly stratified, militaristic society that gradually expanded territory through warfare. Known for elaborate pottery, metalwork, and irrigation systems. Absorbed some Chavin cultural elements but were separate civilization.
Hopewell Culture
Native American culture (100 BCE - 400 CE) centered in Ohio River Valley. Mixed hunter-gatherer and agricultural economy. Built elaborate earthen mounds for burial and ceremonial purposes. Extensive trade network reaching from Great Lakes to Gulf Coast. Known for sophisticated artwork in mica, copper, and obsidian.
Cahokia
Largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico, located near modern St. Louis (700-1400 CE, peak 1050-1200 CE). Population up to 20,000. Built massive earthen mounds including Monks Mound. Engaged in long-distance trade, had social hierarchy and craft specialization. Mysteriously abandoned by 1350 CE, possibly due to environmental degradation, climate change, or political instability.
Oceania
Pacific island region divided into three areas: Polynesia (eastern, including Hawaii, Easter Island, New Zealand), Micronesia (northwestern small islands), Melanesia (southwestern, including Fiji, Papua New Guinea). Settled through remarkable seafaring migrations starting around 1500 BCE using double-hulled canoes. Austronesian peoples brought agriculture (taro, yams), pigs, chickens, and navigation technology.
Tassili Region
Region in the Sahara (modern Algeria) with extensive rock art from 6000-2000 BCE. During this period the Sahara had more rainfall, supporting pastoral societies and early agricultural practices. Cave paintings depict cattle herding, hunting, and daily life.
Bantu Peoples
African cultural and linguistic group originating from West-Central Africa. Practiced mixed agriculture and pastoralism rather than urbanization. Underwent massive migrations (Bantu Expansion) starting around 1000 BCE, spreading agriculture, ironworking, and Bantu languages across sub-Saharan Africa.
Matrilineal Society
Social system tracing descent and inheritance through the mother’s line. Children belong to mother’s clan/family; residence and property rights determined by maternal lineage. Women hold significant social authority. Common in parts of Africa, Pacific Islands, and some Native American groups.
Olmecs
Mesoamerican civilization (1500-400 BCE) in Gulf Coast region of Mexico. Developed agriculture independently without Old World contact, using multiple river systems for irrigation. Created first major civilization in Mesoamerica, influencing later Maya and Aztec cultures.
La Venta
Olmec ceremonial center (900-400 BCE) in Tabasco, Mexico. Featured massive earthen pyramid, plazas, and monumental sculpture. Most important Olmec site after San Lorenzo declined. Abandoned around 400 BCE for unknown reasons.
Basalt Heads
Colossal carved stone heads created by Olmec civilization, weighing up to 50 tons. Depict individual rulers or elite members with distinctive helmets. Basalt quarried from mountains and transported long distances. Demonstrates advanced engineering and political power.
Olmec Writing
Early Mesoamerican writing system using glyphs/symbols (appeared around 900 BCE). Not fully deciphered but recognized as writing due to repeated symbols in specific contexts. One of the earliest writing systems in the Americas, possibly influencing later Maya script.
