What is shaping? Provide and recognize original examples of shaping. (pp. 168–172)
Shaping is the gradual development of a behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behaviour. Instead of waiting for the full behaviour to occur, closer and closer responses are reinforced until the final behaviour is achieved.
Example: Teaching a child to say “thank you” by first reinforcing any vocalization, then clearer sounds, and eventually the full phrase. Another example is training a dog to roll over by reinforcing lying down, then turning partially, then completing the roll.
What five factors are responsible for the effective use of shaping? (pp. 172–173)
(1) Specify the final target behaviour clearly, (2) choose an appropriate starting behaviour, (3) reinforce successive approximations immediately, (4) adjust criteria gradually (not too fast or slow), and (5) ensure consistent reinforcement and avoid reinforcing undesired behaviours.
Effective shaping requires careful timing and progression so the learner is neither confused nor stuck, maintaining motivation and steady improvement.
Explain how adults often unwittingly shape undesirable behaviour in children. (pp. 171–172)
Adults may reinforce undesirable behaviours by giving attention (even negative attention), thereby strengthening them. For example, a child whining may receive attention, reinforcing whining rather than appropriate requests.
Over time, inconsistent reinforcement—sometimes ignoring, sometimes giving in—can strengthen persistent undesirable behaviours because intermittent reinforcement is highly resistant to extinction.
What is a behaviour chain? Provide and recognize original examples of behaviour chains. (p. 173)
A behaviour chain is a sequence of responses where each response produces a stimulus that serves as a cue for the next response and as a conditioned reinforcer for the previous one.
Example: Brushing teeth involves picking up the toothbrush, applying toothpaste, brushing, rinsing, and putting the brush away. Another example is making tea: boiling water, placing a tea bag, pouring water, steeping, and removing the bag.
What is a chaining procedure? What is the first step? (pp. 173–174)
A chaining procedure is a method used to teach a behaviour chain by reinforcing individual steps in sequence until the full chain is learned.
The first step is conducting a task analysis—breaking the complex behaviour into smaller, teachable steps arranged in order.
Name two types of chaining procedures. Be able to provide and recognize original examples of forward and backward chaining. What reinforces each link of a behaviour chain? (pp. 174–176)
The two types are forward chaining and backward chaining. In forward chaining, the first step is taught first and subsequent steps are added; e.g., teaching handwashing starting from turning on the tap. In backward chaining, the last step is taught first; e.g., completing the final step of putting on shoes, then adding earlier steps.
Each link is reinforced by the next step acting as a conditioned reinforcer, while the final step produces a primary or terminal reinforcer.
Define a problem using behavioural terms. Under what conditions do people say that a problem has been solved by insight? (p. 176)
In behavioural terms, a problem exists when a reinforcing outcome is not immediately available and the individual must emit behaviours to obtain it.
Insight is said to occur when a solution appears suddenly without obvious trial-and-error, often after a period of no progress, giving the impression of a sudden understanding.
Describe Kohler’s (1927/1973) studies of problem solving. What did Peckstein and Brown (1939) find when they performed experiments similar to those of Kohler? What do these results indicate about problem solving? (pp. 176–179)
Kohler observed chimpanzees solving problems (e.g., stacking boxes to reach bananas), concluding they used insight rather than trial-and-error. The solutions appeared sudden and purposeful.
Peckstein and Brown found gradual improvement when conditions allowed repeated practice, suggesting learning through reinforcement. These results indicate problem solving can often be explained by learning histories rather than sudden insight.
How did Epstein and his colleagues study problem solving in pigeons? What do these data indicate about problem solving and about insight as an explanation of problem solving? (pp. 179–180)
Epstein trained pigeons separately on behaviours (e.g., pushing a box, pecking a banana replica), then placed them in a situation requiring combining these behaviours to solve a problem.
Pigeons solved the problem without prior direct training of the full sequence, indicating that complex problem solving can emerge from previously reinforced behaviours, challenging the need for “insight” as a separate explanation.
In behavioural terms, what is creativity? What is the traditional explanation of creativity? What is an operant explanation of creativity? (pp. 180–181)
Creativity in behavioural terms is the production of novel or varied responses that are reinforced. It involves variability shaped by reinforcement contingencies.
Traditionally, creativity is attributed to innate talent or sudden inspiration. Operant explanations argue creativity results from reinforcement of novel behaviours and histories that encourage variability.
Describe Pryor’s (1991) work in training animals to respond creatively. Describe Glover and Gary’s (1976) study in encouraging student creativity. (pp. 181–182)
Pryor trained dolphins by reinforcing novel behaviours, leading them to produce increasingly varied and creative responses.
Glover and Gary reinforced students for producing diverse ideas, which increased creative output. Both studies show that reinforcing variability enhances creativity.
What criticism is sometimes made of using reinforcement regarding creativity? Cite the evidence that supports and refutes this criticism. Why do some studies show that reinforcement produces creativity, whereas other studies show that it discourages creativity? (pp. 182–183)
A common criticism is that reinforcement (especially rewards) reduces intrinsic motivation and creativity. Some studies show decreased creativity when rewards are expected for specific outcomes.
However, other studies show reinforcement increases creativity when it rewards novelty and effort. Differences arise due to how reinforcement is applied—controlling rewards can reduce creativity, while reinforcing variability enhances it.
Describe Skinner’s superstition experiment. Describe Wagner and Morris’ (1987) study of superstition in children as well as Ono’s study of college students. According to these studies (and others), what is the basic formula for producing superstitious behaviour? (p. 185)
Skinner delivered food to pigeons on a fixed schedule regardless of behaviour, leading pigeons to repeat accidental behaviours associated with reinforcement. Wagner and Morris showed children developed superstitious behaviours in similar conditions, and Ono demonstrated similar effects in adults.
The basic formula is noncontingent reinforcement delivered close in time to a behaviour, leading to accidental associations.
Describe the criticisms of the reinforcement explanation of superstitions. Can superstitions be harmful? (p. 186)
Critics argue that cognitive processes or innate tendencies, not just reinforcement, may explain superstition, and that some behaviours may not be truly reinforced accidentally.
Superstitions can be harmful if they interfere with effective behaviour, decision-making, or lead to avoidance of beneficial actions.
Describe Seligman’s demonstration of learned helplessness in dogs. Who initially reported an instance of learned helplessness (1967)? (pp. 187–188)
Seligman exposed dogs to unavoidable shocks, after which they failed to escape even when escape was possible, demonstrating learned helplessness.
The phenomenon was initially reported by Seligman and Maier (1967), showing that lack of control over outcomes can reduce future responding.
Can learning experiences prevent helplessness? What is learned industriousness? (p. 189)
Yes, experiences with controllable outcomes and reinforcement for effort can prevent helplessness by building expectations of control.
Learned industriousness refers to increased persistence and effort due to reinforcement of high-effort behaviour, making individuals more resilient in challenging situations.
