Explain Thomas Henry Huxley’s opening quote (p.35).
Scientists must follow evidence over personal beliefs; conclusions should be guided by observation, not preference or tradition.
Describe the law of parsimony and its relation to hypothetical events.
Prefer the simplest adequate explanation. Avoid invoking unobservable mental events if observable variables explain behavior.
Reduction in errors as a measure of learning + example.
Learning shown by fewer mistakes over time. Example: A student makes fewer algebra errors across practice sessions.
Changes in topography as a measure of learning + example.
Learning shown by change in form of behavior. Example: Clearer pronunciation when practicing a new accent.
Changes in intensity as a measure of learning + example.
Learning shown by strength of response. Example: Louder singing after vocal training.
Changes in speed as a measure of learning + example.
Learning shown by faster completion of a response. Example: Completing a puzzle more quickly after practice.
Changes in latency as a measure of learning + example.
Learning shown by shorter delay before responding. Example: Faster reaction to a starting gun after sprint training.
Changes in rate/frequency as a measure of learning + example.
Learning shown by more responses per unit time. Example: Increased number of correctly solved problems per hour.
What is fluency? Provide example.
Accurate responding at high speed. Example: Reading 150 words per minute with high comprehension.
Problems with case studies; advantages over anecdotal evidence.
Problems: lack control, limited generalization. Advantage: systematic, detailed, and documented vs informal anecdote.
Advantages of descriptive studies.
Provide rich, real-world data and generate hypotheses.
Disadvantages of descriptive studies.
Cannot establish causation; risk of observer bias.
Define independent variable + example.
Variable manipulated by researcher. Example: Amount of practice time assigned.
Define dependent variable + example.
Measured outcome affected by IV. Example: Test performance score.
Describe a between-subjects experiment + why random assignment is used.
Different groups receive different treatments. Example: One group studies with music, one without. Random assignment reduces preexisting group differences.
Define within-subject design.
Same participants experience all conditions.
Define baseline period.
Initial measurement phase without treatment.
Define ABA reversal design + original example.
Baseline (A), treatment (B), return to baseline (A). Example: Measure phone use (A), introduce app blocker (B), remove blocker (A) to test effect.
Compare within- and between-subjects designs.
Within: same participants, controls individual differences, risk of carryover. Between: different groups, no carryover, needs random assignment.
Chief limitation of experimental research.
Artificial settings may limit generalization (external validity).
Define laboratory vs field experiments.
Laboratory: controlled artificial setting. Field: natural environment with manipulation.
How field experiments address main limitation.
Increase external validity by testing behavior in real-world contexts.
Three major reasons for using animals in learning research.
Ethical/practical control, biological similarity to humans, ability to study basic processes across species.
Most common objection to animal research; valid grounds?
Objection: animal suffering. Valid concern; requires strict ethical oversight and minimizing harm.
