Who originally said that change is the only constant? Why is this view endorsed?
Heraclitus. Change is constant in biological, environmental, and behavioural processes; evolution and learning depend on continual change.
Why did Charles Darwin reject Thomas Malthus’ view of human population growth?
Malthus argued population growth leads to inevitable misery. Darwin accepted competition but saw it as a mechanism driving natural selection and adaptation, not just human suffering.
Describe Darwin’s theory of adaptation by natural selection. Was he aware of genetics? Who discovered the genetic basis and when?
Variation exists; more offspring are born than survive; individuals with advantageous traits reproduce more; traits become common over generations. Darwin lacked genetic knowledge. Gregor Mendel discovered genetic inheritance in the 1860s (recognized ~1900).
Why would natural selection be impossible if all members were genetically identical? Give one criticism of Darwin’s theory.
Without variation, no differential survival/reproduction occurs. Criticism: gradualism cannot explain sudden evolutionary changes (e.g., rapid shifts in traits).
Give one example of gradual change and one example of rapid change.
Gradual: evolution of horse size over millions of years. Rapid: bacteria developing antibiotic resistance within years.
Is natural selection likely without environmental change? Explain.
Less likely. If surroundings remain stable, existing traits remain adaptive and there is little selective pressure for change.
Why do predators play an important role in natural selection?
They create selective pressure by eliminating less-adapted individuals, increasing survival of advantageous traits.
What is a reflex? Examples: amoeba, rooting reflex, salivary reflex. When may reflexes be useless?
A reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus. Amoeba withdraws from harmful stimuli; babies root when cheek stroked; salivation to food. Reflexes may fail if environment changes (e.g., salivating to non-food cue).
What term is now used instead of instinctive behaviour?
Modal action pattern (MAP).
Why do modal action patterns (MAPs) aid survival? Give examples.
They are stereotyped responses triggered by specific stimuli, ensuring adaptive behaviour (e.g., bird nest-building, mating displays).
Are there MAPs in humans? What is the prevailing view?
Controversial. Some argue few fixed patterns exist in humans due to flexibility; behaviour is more influenced by learning.
Describe the fixed-action pattern of tropical army ants that appears intelligent.
They follow pheromone trails; circular trail formation can trap them in a ‘death spiral,’ showing behaviour is automatic, not intelligent.
Define a general behaviour trait. How does it differ from a fixed-action pattern?
A general behaviour trait is a broad tendency (e.g., aggressiveness). Unlike fixed MAPs, it is flexible and influenced by environment.
How has genetic engineering demonstrated genes’ role in behaviour traits?
By inserting or removing specific genes in animals and observing behavioural changes, showing genes influence behavioural tendencies.
What are the limits of natural selection? Refer to Gordon’s guppy study.
Selection is constrained by existing variation and trade-offs; in guppies, brighter males attract mates but also predators.
What are mutations? Relation to survival and natural selection?
Random DNA changes creating variation; beneficial mutations may increase survival and spread via natural selection.
Why can hybridization aid adaptation? Example.
Combining genes from different populations increases variation; e.g., hybrid plants showing disease resistance.
Why was learning as ‘acquisition of behaviour’ rejected? What definition is accepted by Chance?
Not all behaviour is newly acquired; some changes reflect performance not learning. Learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.
Evidence that covert speech is diminished speech? Are unconscious thoughts behaviour?
Covert speech activates speech muscles subtly. Yes—if behaviour includes internal measurable responses, unconscious thoughts qualify.
What is a stimulus? Give original examples.
Any detectable environmental change affecting behaviour. Examples: phone vibration, smell of smoke, bright screen light.
What is experience? Are all behaviour changes due to experience? Are all experiences learning?
Experience: interaction with environment. Not all changes are from experience (e.g., maturation). Not all experiences produce lasting change (e.g., brief distraction).
Do all environmentally caused behaviour changes qualify as learning? Examples.
No. Temporary fatigue or drug effects alter behaviour but are not learning.
Define habituation. Example. Influencing factors?
Decreased response to repeated stimulus. Example: ignoring traffic noise. Influenced by stimulus intensity, frequency, and novelty.
What is the nature–nurture debate? Why is it problematic? Refer to Kuo and Wilson.
Debate over genetic vs environmental causes. Problem: false dichotomy—traits arise from interaction. Kuo showed environment shapes behaviour; Wilson emphasized genetic influences.
