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- Define the following terms in your own words: automatic reinforcer behavioral momentum conditioned reinforcer contrived reinforcer dopamine drive-reduction theory establishing operation escape-avoidance learning generalized reinforcer instrumental learning law of effect motivating operation natural reinforcer negative reinforcement negative reinforcer one-process theory operant learning positive reinforcement positive reinforcer Premack principle primary reinforcer reinforcement relative value theory response-deprivation theory reward learning reward pathway satiation secondary reinforcer Sidman avoidance procedure two-process theory
Automatic reinforcer: reinforcement produced directly by the behavior itself; Behavioral momentum: persistence of behavior under disruption; Conditioned reinforcer: learned reinforcer via association; Contrived reinforcer: artificially arranged reward; Dopamine: neurotransmitter linked to reward; Drive-reduction theory: behavior reduces biological needs; Establishing operation: condition altering reinforcer value; Escape-avoidance learning: behavior prevents/ends aversive events; Generalized reinforcer: conditioned reinforcer linked to many reinforcers; Instrumental learning: behavior controlled by consequences; Law of effect: responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened.
Motivating operation: alters value of reinforcer; Natural reinforcer: occurs naturally; Negative reinforcement: removal of aversive stimulus strengthens behavior; Negative reinforcer: stimulus removed; One-process theory: avoidance via operant conditioning; Operant learning: behavior shaped by consequences; Positive reinforcement: adding stimulus strengthens behavior; Positive reinforcer: added reward; Premack principle: high-probability behavior reinforces low; Primary reinforcer: biologically innate; Reinforcement: process increasing behavior.
Relative value theory: reinforcement depends on relative preference; Response-deprivation theory: restricting behavior increases its value; Reward learning: learning via rewards; Reward pathway: brain circuit (dopamine-based); Satiation: reduced reinforcer effectiveness; Secondary reinforcer: conditioned; Sidman avoidance: avoidance without warning signal; Two-process theory: classical + operant in avoidance.
- One of Skinner’s chief contributions to behavior science is said to be the use of the rate of behavior as a dependent variable. How does this approach differ from Thorndike’s studies of chicks running mazes?
Skinner measured behavior continuously using response rate (e.g., lever presses per minute), allowing precise, ongoing analysis of behavior strength. This emphasized patterns over time rather than single outcomes.
Thorndike focused on trial-based learning, measuring how long it took animals to complete tasks (latency). His approach was less sensitive to moment-to-moment changes and didn’t capture response dynamics as effectively as rate measures.
- If a pain stops after taking medicine, this is usually considered a positive thing, so why is it called negative reinforcement if the tendency to take the drug is strengthened?
It is called negative reinforcement because the behavior (taking medicine) is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus (pain). “Negative” refers to subtraction, not something bad.
Even though the outcome feels positive, the mechanism is removal of discomfort, which increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior.
- What is the single most important difference between Pavlovian and operant learning?
Pavlovian learning involves associations between stimuli, where behavior is elicited automatically. The organism does not control the outcome.
Operant learning involves associations between behavior and its consequences, where behavior is emitted and shaped by reinforcement or punishment.
- Why does a delay in a reinforcer reduce its strengthening power?
A delay weakens the connection between the behavior and the reinforcer, making it harder for the organism to identify which action caused the outcome.
Immediate reinforcement creates a stronger, clearer association, while delays allow competing behaviors to interfere.
- A classmate argues that ESB is both a primary and a contrived reinforcer. Do you agree? Why or why not?
Yes, ESB (electrical stimulation of the brain) can be considered both. It directly activates reward pathways, making it function like a primary reinforcer.
However, it is also contrived because it is artificially arranged in a laboratory and does not occur naturally in the organism’s environment.
- Some people argue that neuroscience will explain all of behavior, including learning. Why is this view mistaken?
Neuroscience explains mechanisms of behavior but does not replace behavioral principles. Understanding brain activity does not eliminate the need for environmental and learning explanations.
Behavior depends on interactions between brain processes and environmental contingencies, so both levels of analysis are necessary.
- Why is the Premack principle sometimes called Grandmother’s Rule?
It reflects the idea of using a preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred one, like “You can have dessert after you eat your vegetables.”
Grandmothers often use this rule informally, making it a relatable way to describe the principle.
- What are the problems with the drive-reduction theory of reinforcement?
It cannot explain behaviors that increase drives, like curiosity or thrill-seeking. Many reinforcers do not reduce biological needs.
It also fails to account for conditioned and generalized reinforcers, limiting its explanatory power.
- What is the chief difference between Premack’s relative value theory and Timberlake and Allison’s response-deprivation theory?
Premack’s relative value theory states that more preferred behaviors reinforce less preferred ones based on probability differences.
Response-deprivation theory argues that any behavior can serve as a reinforcer if access to it is restricted below baseline levels, regardless of preference hierarchy.
