1
Q
what are the 3 processes in memory
A
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
2
Q
what is encoding
A
- selective attention and transform information to be stored in memory
3
Q
what is storage
A
- keeping or maintaining information in memory
4
Q
what is retrieval
A
- stored information is brought to mind
5
Q
what is the information-processing approach
A
- mental structures and processes
- computer as model for human thinking
6
Q
what is sensory memory
A
- holds information coming through sense for fraction of second to several seconds
- each piece of information
- holds visual images for a fraction of a second; holds sounds for 2 seconds
7
Q
what is short term memory
A
- 5-9 bits of information
- STM works in less than 30 seconds
- when short term memory is full, displacement occurs
- bits of information made larger by chunking
- information kept in short-term memory by rehearsal
8
Q
what are the 3 memory steps
A
- sensory memory
- short term memory
- long-term memory
9
Q
what is short term memory
A
- codes information in acoustic form
- can hold visual information
- can store information in semantic form (meaning)
10
Q
what is the capacity of the short-term memory
A
- sensory memory can hold a vast amount of information briefly
- but short-term memory has very limited capacity
- seven (+ or -) bits of information
- STM lasts less than 30 seconds
11
Q
what is displacement
A
- when short term memory is filled to capacity
- each incoming item pushes out existing item which is forgotten
12
Q
what is chunking
A
- grouping separate bits of information into larger units (chunks)
13
Q
what is rehearsal
A
- repeat information to maintain
- repeat silent or out loud
- short term memory very fragile
- interruption or distraction can lose information in a few seconds
14
Q
what is the working memory
A
- STM is a component of broader system of temporary storage structures and processes called working memory
- mental workspace holding information from sensory memory to long term memory
- working memory is erasable mental blackboard
15
Q
what are memory strategies
A
- manipulate information to make easier to remember
- some strategies automatic
- some strategies require more effort
- rote rehearsal not the best way to remember
16
Q
what is the levels of processing model
A
- ‘shallow’ processing (sound)
- ‘deep’ processing (meaning) works better
- elaboration strategies: relate new information to long term memory information
17
Q
what is long term memory
A
- permanent or relatively permanent memories
- unlimited capacity
- information in long term memory usually stored in semantic form
18
Q
what is the declarative memory
A
- stores facts, information, and personal life events, such as a trip to a foreign country. non declarative memory encompasses motor skills, such as dance movements, which, once learned, can be carried out with little or no conscious effort
- episodic memory contains memory of personal events
- semantic memory is for objective facts and information
19
Q
what is non-declarative memory
A
- motor skills, habits, classically conditioned responses
20
Q
what is recall
A
- information without retrieval cues
- serial recall means recall in specific order
- measuring memory
21
Q
what is recognition
A
- memory with retrieval cues
22
Q
what is relearning
A
- savings method/score
- measuring learning by using time it takes to relearn forgotten facts
23
Q
explain the nature of remembering
A
- memory as a permanent record: video recorder analogy
- memory as reconstruction: not exact replica of events, Bartlett says LTM distorts new memories
24
Q
what are schemas
A
- framework of knowledge and assumptions about people, objects and events
- affect encoding and information recall
- we distort and ignore
25
what is the misinformation effect
- leading questions can change a witness's memory. ask neutral questions
26
what are peripheral details
- affected due to high arousal (stress)
27
what is distortion
- alter memory to firm beliefs, expectations, logic, prejudices
- positive bias = tend to distort memories in a positive way
- need for emotional well being
28
what is an eyewitness testimony
- often subjective to error
- composition of lineup important
- simultaneous lineup more accurate than sequential lineup
- showups vs lineups
- for children, fast 'elimination lineups' is most effective
- ask neutral questions to avoid misinformation effect
- with children, interviewers can take simple steps to increase better reports
- hypnosis does not improve accuracy
- repressed (dissociated) memories exist
- false memories can be reconstructed in response to suggestions of abuse
29
what can cause repressed memories
- abuse or trauma
- real or imagined?: psychologists are skeptical of 'recovered memories' = false memories, as they are created by the suggestion of therapists
30
what is a flashbulb memory
- extremely vivid memory
| - conditions when we hear news or surprise, shocking, emotional event
31
what is eidetic imagery
- retaining image of visual stimulus for several minutes after out of view
32
what is the serial position effect
- recall beginning and ending items in sequence the best
33
what is the primacy effect
- information at beginning of sequence recalled as already placed in LTM
34
what is the recency effect
- end of sequence higher recall probability because still in STM
35
what is an environmental context memory
- information easier to recall in the same environmental context
- person in original environment context as when learning material (retrieval cue)
- encoding specificity hypothesis
36
what is a state-dependent memory
- information easier to recall too
- person in the same emotional state as when learning material
- internal state affects memory, especially anxiety
- alcohol, drugs, mood affect memory
37
what is long-term potentiation
- long-lasting increase in efficiency of neutral transmission at synapses
- long-term memory strengthened
- both presynaptic and postsynaptic neutrons activated at the same time by intense high frequency stimulation
38
how do hormones affect memory
- strong memories fuelled by emotion
- hormones enable humans to survive, imprint memories of threatening circumstances
- excess stress hormone cortisol interferes with memory if adrenal gland disease
- estrogen improves working memory
39
ebbinghaus's curve of forgetting
- immediate recall: 100%
- 20 minutes: 58%
- 1 hour: 44%
- 9 hours: ~39%
- tapers off after this
40
what is encoding failure
- a cause of forgetting
| - material not put into LTM
41
what is the decay theory
- regarding cause of forgetting
| - unused memories disappear with time
42
what is interference
- regarding cause of forgetting
| - old (proactive) or new (retroactive) information interferes with learning or recall
43
what is consolidation failure
- disruption in consolidation process preventing permanent memory formation
44
what is motivated forgetting
- protect oneself from painful, frightening, unpleasant memories
- forgetting through suppression, repression, amnesia
45
what is retrieval failure
- inability to locate information
| - cannot retrieve LTM information
46
what is prospective forgetting
- forgetting to carry out action in the future
47
what is organization
- can help improve memory
| - use categories or mnemonics
48
what is overlearning
- practice or study beyond where repeated once without error
49
spaced vs massed practice
- spacing studying effective (not last minute)
50
active learning vs rereading
- active is best; connect new information to present knowledge
51
what are 3 mnemonic devices
- the first letter technique
- the method of loci: begin by thinking of locations, perhaps in your home, that are in a sequence. then visualize one of the items to be remembered in each location
- the keyword method: step 1, you picture something that sounds like the word you have to learn, such as 'canner' for the word canard. in step 2, you make an interactive image with the sound-alike picture and a picture of the real word you have to learn
Social Science
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