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HPD 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of stress?

A

psychological and physiological response to a stimulus (stressor) that alters the body’s homeostasis

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2
Q

What is the difference between stressors vs stress responses?

A

stressors: external or internal events/stimuli that trigger a stress response

stress responses: the ways in which we react/respond to or feel about a stressor

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3
Q

What are the different types of stress responses?

A

cognitive
affective
behavioural
physiological

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4
Q

What is the difference between external or internal stressors?

A

external: specific event happening around you e.g sitting an exam

internal: emotional conflict inside you - making decision-making tough e.g being torn between helping a friend or revising for an exam

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5
Q

What are the different types of stress?

A

negative vs positive
- distress: stress that is harmful or damaging
- eustress: stress that is beneficial or positive

acute vs chronic
- acute: usually in short duration
- chronic: stress such as repeated exposure to a stressor is usually longer in duration

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6
Q

What are the physical symptoms of stress?

A
  • headaches or dizziness
  • muscle tension or pain
  • stomach problems
  • chest pain or a faster heartbeat
  • sexual problems
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7
Q

What are the psychological symptoms of stress?

A
  • difficulty concentrating
  • struggling to make decisions
  • feeling overwhelmed
  • constantly worrying
  • being forgetful
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8
Q

What are the changes in behaviour when someone is stressed?

A
  • being irritable and snappy
  • sleeping too much or too little
  • eating too much or too little
  • avoiding certain places or people
  • drinking or smoking more
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9
Q

How does stress in children and adolescents manifest itself?

A
  • irritability and anger
  • changes in behaviour
  • trouble sleeping
  • neglecting responsibilities
  • eating changes
  • getting sick more often
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10
Q

What is Cannon’s Fight or Flight Model of Stress (1932)?

A

a model that defines stress as a physiological response preparing the body to either escape a stressor or fight it

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11
Q

What are the three stages in Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (1956)?

A
  • alarm
  • resistance
  • exhaustion
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12
Q

In regards to Cannon’s Fight or Flight Model of Stress (1932), and Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (1956), what are some limitations of these?

A
  1. stress primary seen as physiological, and it is assumed that a stressor will elicit the same
    type of response in individuals (i.e., stimulus → response)
  2. physiological response to stress consistent and non-specific to the type of stressor (i.e., train delay vs job loss)
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13
Q

What are some problems with physiological response models?

A
  • INCOMPLETE BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
    (they mostly focus on how your body reacts but don’t fully explain how your brain, feelings or life situation affect stress)
  • LACK OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
    (they assume everyone reacts the same way to stress, but people are all different)
  • ASSUMES ALL STRESSORS PRODUCE THE SAME RESPONSE
    (they treat all stress like it causes the same reaction, but stress from a job loss feels different from stress about a surprise test)
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14
Q

Fill in the gaps.

Physiological stress models mainly focus on the body’s automatic reaction (like heart rate, hormones) and assume stress is the __1__ for everyone and the __2__ no matter the __3__.

A
  1. same
  2. same
  3. situation
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15
Q

Name four situational factors that influence stress responses.

A
  • novelty
    (is this new or familiar? new stuff usually stresses more)
  • unpredictability (not knowing what’s coming makes it worse)
  • salience
    (how important or scary it feels)
  • controllability (feeling in control helps reduce stress)
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16
Q

What individual factors affect how a person responds to stress?

A
  • genetics
  • current stress level
  • personality
  • available resources
  • coping strategies
  • gender
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17
Q
  1. What is allostasis?
  2. What is allostatic load?
  3. What happens if the allostatic response is not terminated?
A
  1. process where the body adapts to stress by adjusting different systems to maintain balance
  2. the wear and tear on the body caused by repeated or prolonged activation of stress response systems
  3. puts pressure on bodily systems, potentially leading to health problems
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18
Q

Name factors that contribute to allostatic load.

A

repeated exposure to stressors

lack of adaptation to stress

prolonged or inadequate stress response

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19
Q

Who proposed the concept of allostatic load?

A

McEwen, 1998

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20
Q

What does the Life Events Theory suggest?

A

that stress and stress related changes occur in response to life experiences

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21
Q
  1. How did the Schedule of Recent Experiences (SRE) measure stress?
  2. Who developed this?
  3. Give two examples of event included in the SRE.
A
  1. by counting the number of life events/experiences recorded without weighing the severity
  2. Holmes and Rahe’s, 1967
  3. death of close family member, going on holiday
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22
Q

Name 4 limitations of Life Events Theory.

A
  • subjective experience of stress is important and not considered
  • retrospective assessments (recall bias)
  • interactions between life experiences/events treated as independent
  • distinction between acute and chronic stressors not included
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23
Q

Why can retrospective assessments in Life Events Theory be unreliable?

What type of bias is this called?

A

they rely on memory - can be biased

recall bias

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24
Q

What is the difference between Schedule of Recent Experiences (SRE) and Life Events Theory?

A

Life Events Theory is the idea that big life changes can cause stress, SRE is one of the tools designed to quantify stress and measure that idea

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25
What does the Transaction Model of Stress suggests?
that stress is not just about the stressful event itself but about the transaction between you and the situation - depends on how a person appraises the event and their ability to cope
26
1. What is the primary appraisal in the Transaction Model? 2. What is the secondary appraisal in the Transaction Model? 3. According to this model, why might two people react differently to the same event?
1. initial evaluation of whether the situation is irrelevant, a challenge or a threat 2. the assessment of whether you have the resources and abilities to cope with the situation 3. because they appraise the event and their coping resources differently
27
According to the PSS-10, what scores would be considered the following: a. Low stress b. Moderate stress c. High stress
a. 0-13 b. 14-26 c. 27-40
28
What is the average PSS-10 score for the following age groups: a. 18-29 b. 30-44 c. >45
a. 14 b. 13 c. 12
29
Why is prenatal exposure to stress relevant?
children of mothers who experience high levels of stress during pregnancy are: - more responsive to stress - display more anxiety - are more likely to have cognitive/attention issues
30
When is stress response learnt? Offspring of what kind of mothers are less responsive to stress?
in infancy nurturing mothers
31
How does the ANS respond to stress?
- stress occurs -> sympathetic nervous system kicks in (branch of ANS) - triggers catecholamine release: adrenaline and noradrenaline - increase HR, reduce digestion to save energy, fight or flight response
32
How does the HPA response to stress?
- release of cortisol (stress hormone) from zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex (hypothalamus: CRH, anterior pituitary: ACTH, ACTH -> stimulates adrenal cortex) - increase blood sugar (inflammatory response)
33
1. What is the brain-gut axis? 2. What nervous system controls the gut? 3. What is the function of the vagus nerve in the brain-gut axis?
1. a two-way communication system between the brain and digestive system involving neural and hormonal pathways 2. enteric nervous system 3. transmits information from organs to brain (afferent)
34
Why are cortisol and oxytocin relevant in stress?
cortisol: body's main stress hormone oxytocin: "love hormone" oxytocin acts as a counter-regulatory hormone to cortisol by facilitating anti-stress effects
35
What has oxytocin been found to reduce? What has it been found to increase?
- BP - cortisol - pain - anxiety _________ - positive social interactions - empathy - desire to help those we care about - trust
36
What is an example of a disease which is linked to long-term stress? How?
alzheimer's disease depression often linked to prolonged stress. sustained stress levels lead to: - elevated cortisol: can damage neurons at neurotoxic concentrations - increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines: neuroinflammation - persistent over-activation of the sympathetic nervous system cause atrophy and thinning of grey matter in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
37
Cox and Mackay (1978) identified 4 ways in which stress can affect health. What are they?
1. physical damage 2. increased vulnerability to infection 3. increase in unhealthy behaviour: coping efforts 4. mental health (anxiety, depression)
38
What are some strategies for stress management?
cognitive strategies e.g meditation behaviour strategies e.g time-management emotional strategies e.g counselling physical strategies e.g exercises pharmaceutical
39
What are some relaxation techniques for stress management? List some benefits.
progressive muscle relaxation, biofeedback, yoga slowing HR, lowering BP, slowing RR, reduce anger and frustration, increase blood flow to major muscles, improve concentration and mood
40
What is the Undoing Effect and what is it based on?
refers to positive emotions helping your body and mind bounce back from stress - positive emotions actively reversing the physiological effects caused by stress Broaden-and-Build Theory by Fredrickson, 1998
41
What are the two most important factors to moderate stress?
control social support
42
What are the Top 5 Anxiety Disorders?
1. generalised anxiety disorder 2. panic disorder 3. social anxiety disorder 4. obsessive compulsive disorder 5. reaction to trauma (PTSD/acute stress disorder)
43
What is the core symptom of Generalised Anxiety Disorder? Plus at least how many other symptoms?
persistent worry that is disproportionate to any inherent risk - worries often difficult to pinpoint - symptoms present for at least 6 months 3 other symptoms
44
What are the core symptoms of Panic Disorder? Plus at least __1__of which symptoms?
4 of the following symptoms (must be present for at least 1 month): - airway symptoms (choking feeling) - breathing symptoms (chest pain) - circulation symptoms (sweating, dizziness) - cognitive symptoms (depersonalisation) - abdominal symptoms (nausea)
45
What are the core symptoms of Social Anxiety Disorder?
- persistent fear of one/more social/performance situations which individual is exposed to unfamiliar people/possible scrutiny by others - individual fears that they will act in way/show biological anxiety symptoms that will be embarrassing and humiliating - avoidance behaviour - situational panic attacks - insight that fear is unreasonable/excessive (symptoms must be present for at least 6 month)
46
What is the Criteria for PTSD?
47
What are the definitions of Distress and Eustress?
distress: stress that is harmful or damaging eustress: stress that is beneficial or positive
48
What does the Undoing Effect suggest?
that positive emotions broaden capacity for positive experience and influences health outcomes (Fredrickson, 1998) positive emotions (joy, gratitude, love, amusement) can literally reverse this stress response - they help the body return to baseline more quickly — lowering heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension
49
What are 4 physical effects of stress?
50
What are the neurotransmitters involved in anxiety? How/why?
serotonin - low = amygdala overactive, poor emotion regulation → ↑ anxiety - high = usually calming, but too much in some circuits → agitation or jittery anxiety dopamine - high levels: increase alertness, vigilance and motivating and maintenance behaviours of anxiety GABA - inhibitory neurotransmitter that induces relaxation = decreases anxiety glutamate - excitatory neurotransmitter that increases neuron excitation = increases anxiety noradrenaline - leads to autonomic nervous system symptoms and is increased in anxiety gut hormones (cholecystokinin) - has modulatory effect in anxiety
51
What are the areas of the brain involved in learning?
ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) amygdala
52
What happens to anxiety when serotonin levels are low?
overactive amygdala, poor emotional regulation = increased anxiety
53
What happens when serotonin levels are high?
usually calming, but excess activity in some circuits = agitation or jittery anxiety
54
What does the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) do in anxiety?
vmPFC regulates fear by inhibiting amygdala activity; reduced function → impaired fear regulation → ↑ anxiety
55
What does the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) do in anxiety?
ACC monitors conflict, regulates emotional responses; hyperactivity or dysfunction is linked to excessive worry and anxiety
56
What role does the amygdala play in anxiety?
detects threats and generates fear responses; hyperactive in anxiety disorders
57
What are the "big three" mood neurotransmitters? What do all 3 of them combined contribute to?
1. dopamine 2. norepinephrine 3. serotonin STABLE MOOD
58
What neurotransmitters make up the following moods/feelings: 1. Focused 2. Appetite 3. Intuition
1. dopamine and NE 2. dopamine and serotonin 3. NE and serotonin
59
What are Cognitive Theories?
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - fear conditioning: suggest that a neutral unconditioned stimulus paired with an aversive conditioned stimulus repeatedly will lead to conditioned response even with the unconditioned stimulus eventually 2. OPERANT CONDITIONING - escape/avoidance behaviours: if situation is aversive and individual responds by taking themselves away from it, this becomes a negative reinforcer 3. COGNITIVE BIASES - attention bias: bias towards threat - interpretation bias: negative interpretation of ambiguous stimuli - confirmation bias: selective attention to things which may confirm belief - above thought to be linked with frontal hypo-responsivity & amygdala hyper-responsivity
60
What is the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines? List a side effect. Give an example of one.
61
What is the mechanism of action of SSRIs? List side effects and give examples.
62
What is the mechanism of action of SNRIs? List side effects and give examples.
63
What are some methods of anxiety managements?
mindfulness CBT psychotherapy/counselling eye-movement desensitisation & reprocessing positive psychology coaching
64
What does mindfulness focus on? What are the 7 principles of mindfulness?
focuses on the present in a holistic way e.g meditation 1. non-judging - being impartial to your experience 2. patience 3. beginner's mind 4. trust 5. non-striving 6. acceptance 7. letting go
65
What does CBT focus on? List 3 aspects of CBT.
on the present in a cognitive and physical way - aims to challenge your thoughts - looks at biases that maintain the thoughts and aims to challenge them - suggests a relationship between thoughts, feelings and both physical and psychological behaviours
66
What is Eye-Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing especially useful for?
PTSD
67
What is the core symptom of Generalised Anxiety Disorder? List at least 3 symptoms which must also be present.
68
What are the guidelines for treating GAD, Panic Disorders and Social Anxiety Disorders?
69
What is the core symptom of Panic Disorder? List at least 4 symptoms which must also be present.
70
What are the core symptoms of Social Anxiety Disorder?
71
What is the guideline for treating OCD?
72
What is OCD?
Med Term 3
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