1
Q
development is …. (5 things)
A
- lifelong
- multidimensional
- multidirectional
- plastic
- contextual
2
Q
what is lifelong ?
A
- happens from birth to death, never stops
- changes continue throughout life
- meaniful developmental changed that occur beyond adulthood, in older lifecycles
3
Q
what is multidimensional ?
A
- includes physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects
- chnages in brain itself, physiological, social, personality, physical, etc
4
Q
what is multidirectional ?
A
- some abilities improve, others decline, at the same time or different paces
5
Q
what is plastic ?
A
- changes across lifespan
- flexible, can change with experiences
- older brains ability is less plastic in comparison to infancy
6
Q
what is contextual ?
A
- shaped by environemnt (family, culture, society, history)
7
Q
which point of development is defined as : “as they get older, a child’s native language will get better while their ability to pick up a new language as you age will get harder”
A
multidirectional
8
Q
which point of development is defined as : “happens from birth to death, never stops”
A
lifelong
9
Q
which point of development is defined as : “some abilities improve, others decline”
A
multidirectional
10
Q
which point of development is defined as : “flexible, can change with experiences”
A
plastic
11
Q
which point of development is defined as : “shaped by environment : family, culture, society, history”
A
contextual
12
Q
which point of development is defined as : “includes physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects”
A
multidimensional
13
Q
What are the three main areas covered when studying development?
A
Major Developmental Issues, Historical Background, Research Methods
14
Q
What does the “Major Developmental Issues” section focus on?
A
Key questions and debates in development.
15
Q
What does the “Historical Background” section cover?
A
Theories and perspectives from the past about studying development.
16
Q
What does the “Research Methods” section focus on?
A
How we study and measure developmental change.
17
Q
Name three components of research methods in studying development.
A
- Scientific method & research design
- methods of data collection
- how to measure change.
18
Q
What is the purpose of research methods in developmental psychology?
A
To provide reliable ways to study and measure changes in development.
19
Q
What are the three main processes that interact to create a person?
A
- Biological processes
- Cognitive processes
- Socio-emotional processes
20
Q
What do biological processes include?
A
- Physical growth
- brain development
- health
- genetic makeup (organs, traits, personality)
21
Q
What do cognitive processes include?
A
- Thinking
- learning
- memory
- language
- major brain changes across life.
22
Q
What do socio-emotional processes include?
A
- Relationships
- emotions
- personality
- temperament.
23
Q
How do the three processes relate to one another?
A
They all interact with each other to shape development and create a whole person.
24
Q
Which process involves changes in memory ability and event recall?
A
Cognitive processes.
25
Which process involves genetic makeup, traits, and physical health?
Biological processes
26
Which process involves emotions, relationships, and personality?
Socio-emotional processes
27
What is an example of a biological change that affects development?
Brain development or physical growth
28
What is an example of a socio-emotional change that affects development?
Shifts in relationships or emotional regulation
29
What is Nature in the nature vs. nurture debate?
The idea that development comes from biology and genetics (Nativism)
30
What is Nurture in the nature vs. nurture debate?
The idea that development comes from environment and experience (Empiricism)
31
Nature is linked with which theory?
Nativism — “Biology is destiny”
32
Nurture is linked with which theory?
Empiricism — “Tabula Rasa” (blank slate)
33
According to Nature, what primarily shapes who we are?
Genetics, biological makeup, and inherited traits
34
According to Nurture, what primarily shapes who we are?
Environment, experiences, learning, and culture
35
Which view believes developmental change is inevitable?
Nature (because of genetics/biology)
36
Which view believes development depends on experiences?
Nurture (because environment shapes us)
37
What is the developmental issue of Nature vs. Nurture about?
Whether development is shaped more by genetics/biology (nature) or by environment/experience (nurture)
38
What does Nativism emphasize?
Biology and genetics determine development (“Biology is destiny”)
39
What is another term for Nativism?
Biological extremism
40
What phrase is used to summarize Nativism?
“Biology is destiny”
41
What does Empiricism emphasize?
Environment and experience shape development (“Tabula Rasa” or blank slate)
42
What phrase is used to summarize Empiricism?
“Tabula Rasa”
43
How does Nature influence development?
Through biology, genetics, and biological makeup
43
How does Nurture influence development?
Through environmental factors, learning, and life experiences
43
Which side of the debate says “developmental change is inevitable”?
Nature (Nativism)
44
which term is used to define : genetics and biological makeup?
Nature
45
which term is used to define : born as a blank slate and genetic factors noly play a small role... its our environment that plays the main role?
Nuture
46
If intelligence is determined by genetics,
how would you structure the educational system?
- want to do testing
- give parents IQ test
- different teaching methods for different levels
47
if were looking at genetics view = fixed ability ... we are tracking students by :
"innate" ability
48
if were looking at environmental view = fixed ability ... were tracking students by
- equal opportunities
- focus on support / ressources
- teaching all the exact same way
49
If intelligence is determined by genetics (nature), how would education be structured?
Fixed ability → tracking students by innate ability, IQ testing, and different teaching methods for different levels
50
What does the “genetics view” of education assume about ability?
That ability is fixed and determined by biology
51
If intelligence is determined by the environment (nurture), how would education be structured?
Flexible ability → equal opportunities, focus on teaching, support, and resources for all students
52
What does the “environmental view” of education assume about ability?
That ability can change and be developed through teaching and resources
53
Which perspective would use IQ tests to sort students into levels?
Nature (genetics view)
54
Which perspective would give all students the same opportunities and focus on teaching?
Nurture (environmental view)
55
Do nature and nurture work separately or together?
They interact — most traits include contributions from both biology and environment
56
developmental issues can be :
continuity and discontinious
57
describe discontinuous :
- sudden jumps
- stages of changes
- each step has a different organization
58
describe continuous :
- slow
- steady
- gradual change
59
height is an example of discontinuous or continuous ?
continuous
60
between discontinuous and continuous, which is a smoother gradual advance ?
continuous
61
What is the main question in the continuity vs. discontinuity debate?
Whether development is smooth and gradual (continuous) or occurs in distinct stages (discontinuous)
62
Which view suggests development happens in gradual, ongoing changes?
Continuity
63
Why can the same data look continuous or discontinuous?
It depends on how closely and at what level (individual vs. average) you examine it.
64
Which view suggests development happens in distinct shifts or stages?
Discontinuity
65
How might averaging data across individuals affect how development looks?
It smooths out stage-like jumps, making change look more gradual
66
What is the developmental issue of early vs. later experience about?
Whether early experiences have lasting, critical effects or whether people can change and adapt throughout life
67
What does it mean when we say early experiences can be critical?
Early attachment, learning, and experiences strongly shape later development (e.g., language, vision, social relationships)
68
What does malleability continues throughout life mean?
people remain flexible — growth and change are possible even later in life
69
What is the main takeaway from the early vs. later experience debate?
Early years matter, but development is not fixed — adaptation is possible at any age
70
Define critical period in development
A specific time early in life when certain experiences must occur for proper development (e.g., learning vision or language)
71
Define malleability in development
The ability to change, adapt, and grow even after early stages of life
72
Give an example of an early critical experience
Learning to see visually or acquiring language early on
73
Give an example showing malleability later in life
A child who experienced malnutrition may eventually catch up with proper nutrition
74
Who was Platot?
A 4th century B.C. philosopher, nativist
75
What was Plato's view on development?
nativist — believed knowledge is inborn (nature)
76
Who was Aristotle ?
A 4th century B.C. philosopher, empiricist
77
What was Aristotle's view on development?
empiricist — believed knowledge comes from experience (nurture)
78
Who was John Locke ?
A 17th–18th century philosopher, empiricist
79
What was John Locke's view on development?
empiricist — believed children are born as a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) and shaped by environment/experience.
80
Who was Jean-Jacques Rousseau ?
A 17th–18th century philosopher, nativist
81
What was Jean-Jacques Rousseau's view on development?
nativist — believed children are “noble savages,” naturally good and able to develop on their own
82
What did Charles Darwin contribute to developmental study in 1877?
Wrote the first scientific record of child growth, the “Baby Biography,” studying his own child’s development.
83
What is the significance of Plato vs. Aristotle in developmental theory?
They represent the early nature vs. nurture debate — Plato (nature, nativism) vs. Aristotle (nurture, empiricism).
84
What did Rousseau mean by “noble savages”?
The idea that children are naturally good and should be free to learn and explore on their own
85
who believed knowledge is inborn (born with naturally) ?
plato
86
who believed knowledge comes from experiences ?
aristotle
87
who believed blank slate, shaped by environment (through experiences) ?
Locke
88
who believed kids are naturally good, develop on their own (children should be free to learn and explore on their own) ?
Rousseau
89
who studied his own child's development ... first scientific record of child growth ?
Darwin
90
When did developmental psychology begin to emerge as a formal field?
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, with university-supported research programs and academic journals
91
Who is considered the “father of developmental psychology”?
G. Stanley Hall
92
What did G. Stanley Hall establish?
The first psychology lab in the U.S. and the normative approach
93
What is the normative approach?
Studying age-related norms — what’s typical at each age — to compare individual development
93
What did Arnold Gesell emphasize in development?
Biological maturation — development unfolds naturally according to a biological timetable.
94
How did psychology become a formal science in the late 1800s/early 1900s?
Through universities, research programs, and academic journals
95
What does “biological maturation” mean in Gesell’s theory?
That growth and development occur naturally as the body matures, not just through experience
96
Who is Arnold Gesell ?
emphasized biological maturation (development unfolds naturally)
97
who derived the first psychology lab in the U.S. normative approach ?
G. Stanley Hall
98
who studied age-related norms (what's typical at each age) ?
G. Stanley Hall
99
Who was Sigmund Freud?
A psychologist who developed the psychosexual theory, focusing on unconscious desires and early childhood experiences
100
What is Freud’s psychosexual theory?
Behavior is driven by unconscious sexual desires; development is shaped most strongly in early years
101
Who was Erik Erikson?
A psychologist who developed the psychosocial theory, focusing on social conflicts across the lifespan
102
What is Erikson’s psychosocial theory?
Development occurs in 8 stages, each defined by a conflict (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. confusion)
103
what does sigmund freud believe ?
behaviour driven by unconscious desires, early childhood experiences matter most
104
who believes sexual drives play a role in personality development ?
sigmund freud
105
what does erik Erickson believe ?
focused on social conflicts across lifespan ( 8 stages)
106
who believes broad outline on developmental changes at different ages ?
erik Erikson
107
what are the main differences between freud and erikson ?
freud = sexual desires (emphasizes early years)
erikson = social / identity growth (development continues throughout life)
108
How did Freud and Erikson’s views differ?
Freud emphasized sexual desires and early childhood, while Erikson emphasized social identity growth and development across the entire life span
109
What does each stage in Erikson’s psychosocial theory represent?
A conflict that must be resolved (e.g., identity vs. role confusion in adolescence)
110
Give an example of a stage in Erikson’s theory
Trust vs. mistrust → infancy (first year of life)
111
How many stages are in Erikson’s psychosocial theory?
8 stages
112
According to Freud, which period of life matters most for development?
Early childhood
113
What do behaviourists believe about development?
Development is learned through the environment, not inherited traits
114
Who was John B. Watson?
A behaviourist who believed all behaviour is learned through the environment and experience, not heredity
115
What was Watson’s famous claim about infants?
With the right environment, he could train any infant to become any type of specialist (doctor, lawyer, artist, thief, etc.), regardless of ancestry
116
What does Watson’s quote illustrate?
The power of environmental learning over genetics in shaping development
117
Who was B.F. Skinner?
A behaviourist who focused on reinforcement and punishment in learning
118
What did B.F. Skinner emphasize about behaviour?
Behaviour is shaped by conditioning — reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it
119
What is the main principle of behaviourism?
All behaviour can be explained by learning and conditioning
120
Who was Jean Piaget?
A psychologist who studied how children think and learn; created the Cognitive Developmental Theory
121
What is Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory?
The idea that children actively build knowledge by interacting with the world, and development happens in set stages (discontinuous)
122
How many stages are in Piaget’s theory?
4 stages of cognitive development
123
What is the Sensorimotor Stage?
Birth–2 years; infants learn through senses and actions, moving from reflexes to symbolic thought
124
What is the Preoperational Stage?
2–7 years; children use words and images, develop symbolic thinking, but lack logical reasoning
125
What is the Concrete Operational Stage?
7–11 years; children can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects
126
What is the Formal Operational Stage?
11 years–adulthood; adolescents think abstractly, logically, and idealistically
127
Does Piaget’s theory view development as continuous or discontinuous?
Discontinuous — it happens in set stages
128
what is piaget's theory ?
4 stages of cognitive growth, moving from simple sensory actions to abstract reasoning
129
Who was Lev Vygotsky?
A psychologist who developed the Sociocultural Theory of developmen
130
What is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory?
The idea that culture and social interaction drive cognitive development
131
According to Vygotsky, how does learning happen?
Through social interactions with adults and peers
132
What role does culture play in development, according to Vygotsky?
Culture provides tools (like language, customs, and values) that shape thinking
133
What role do adults play in Vygotsky’s theory?
Adults guide children’s learning by providing support — known as scaffolding
134
What is scaffolding in learning?
When adults provide structured support to help children learn, gradually reducing help as the child becomes more capable
135
What is the main focus of Vygotsky’s theory?
The importance of cultural context and adult interaction in shaping development
136
what does vygotsky believe ?
culture + interaction drive development
137
what did Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory empahsize ?
the importance of xultural implication and that adults play a big role in your cognitive upbringing
138
what are the four steps of information-process approch ?
- external events
- sensory memory
- short-term memory
- long-term memory
139
What is the Information-Processing Approach?
A theory that compares the mind to a computer, where information flows through steps of processing, storing, and retrieving.
140
What is sensory memory?
The first stage that briefly holds incoming information from the senses
141
What is short-term memory?
A limited-capacity memory system where information is held temporarily and worked with
141
How does information move from sensory memory to short-term memory?
By paying attention to important or novel information
142
What is long-term memory?
A relatively permanent and limitless store of knowledge and experiences
143
What is encoding in the information-processing model?
The process of storing information into long-term memory
144
What is retrieval in the information-processing model?
Bringing information back from long-term memory when needed
145
How does development improve information processing?
With growth, we get better at processing, storing, and using information
146
What is the ethological approach?
A perspective that emphasizes the evolutionary origins of behaviour and how it helps survival
147
What does the ethological approach study?
How behaviour is shaped through evolution and adaptation
148
Who is a key figure in the ethological approach?
Konrad Lorenz
149
What is imprinting?
When baby animals attach to the first moving object they see (usually the mother) to ensure survival
150
Give an example of imprinting in humans
Infants forming attachments to their primary caregivers
151
Why do behaviours like phobias, language, or sleeping at night matter in the ethological approach?
They are seen as evolutionary adaptive traits that increase survival
152
What does “evolutionary adaptive” mean?
A trait or behaviour that helps an organism survive and reproduce
153
What is the Ecological Approach?
A theory by Bronfenbrenner that says child development is shaped by the environment at different levels
153
What is the Microsystem?
The child’s immediate surroundings (family, school, friends, peers, playground)
154
What is the Mesosystem?
The connections between microsystems (e.g., how family and teachers interact)
155
What is the Exosystem?
Indirect influences on the child (e.g., parent’s job, social services, mass media)
156
What is the Macrosystem?
The broader culture, values, laws, and customs passed down through generations
157
What is the main idea of Bronfenbrenner’s theory?
Development is influenced by multiple layers of environment, from close family to broad culture and time
157
What is the Chronosystem?
The dimension of time — life events, history, and the period in which the child is born
157
what are the topics under microsystem?
child
158
Who created the Ecological Approach?
Urie Bronfenbrenner
159
what are the topics under mesosystem ?
- family
- playground
- peers
- religious institutions
- health-care services
- school
159
what are the topics under exosystem?
- extended family
- neighbours
- mass media
- social welfare services
- legal services
- friends of family
160
what are the topics under macrosystem?
- attitudes and ideologies of the culture
160
what is the term used to define : time, life events, history (time period they are born into)
chronosystems
161
what is the term used to define : big picture, culture and values (passed downn through generations)
macrosystems
162
what is the term used to define : indirect influences (parent's job, social services, government)
exosystems
163
what is the term used to define : how those microsystems interact (e.g. family and teachers)
mesosystems
164
what is the term used to define : immediate surronding (family, school, friends)
microsystems
165
what is the ecological appraoch ?
that child development is shaped by environment at different levels
166
What is the scientific method?
A process for studying and understanding the world using theories, hypotheses, research, and observations
167
What is a theory?
A broad idea or explanation about how something works
168
What is a hypothesis?
A testable prediction based on a theory
169
What does it mean to generate or refine a theory?
Use research results to support, change, or improve a theory
169
What happens during research and observations?
Data is collected to test the hypothesis
170
Is the scientific method a one-time process?
No, it’s a cycle that continues as new research refines theories
171
What makes a good theory?
It can be tested and potentially disproven
172
TRUE OR FALSE
if you cant disprove something then its not useful to science
TRUE
173
TRUE OR FALSE
all theories are equal
false
all theories are not equal
173
TRUE OR FALSE
nothing is able to be proven... but it can be proven
TRUE
174
TRUE OR FALSE
a good theory makes it possible to test
TRUE
175
what provides a framework for an experiment ?
hypothesis
175
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method ?
- research and observation
- generate or refine
- theories
- lead to
- hypothesis
176
What are the cornerstones of psychological research?
- Operational definitions
- Sampling
- Reliability
- Validity
177
What is an operational definition?
A clear way to measure something
177
What is sampling?
Choosing participants to represent the population
178
What is reliability?
Getting the same results every time
179
What is validity?
Measuring what you are supposed to measure
179
which cornerstone of psychological research is defined as : clearly define how variables are measured ?
operational definition
180
which cornerstone of psychological research is defined as : consistency of results (test gives same outcome each time)
reliability
181
which cornerstone of psychological research is defined as : selecting participants (needs to represent the population)
sampling
182
which cornerstone of psychological research is defined as : accuracy (test measures what its supposed to measure)
validity
183
What are the two conflicting goals in data collection?
Naturalistic (ecological validity) and Control
184
What is naturalistic validity?
Studying behaviour in real-world settings (more realistic but less controlled)
185
What is control in research?
Using tightly managed experiments to limit variables (more accuracy but less realistic)
186
What happens when control goes up?
Naturalistic validity goes down
186
What happens when naturalistic validity goes up?
Control goes down
187
Why is control important?
It reduces confounding variables and increases accuracy
188
Why is naturalistic validity important?
It helps results represent real-world behaviour
188
what are two methods of data collection ?
naturalistic observation & structured observation
189
What is naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in a natural setting (not in a lab)
190
What is a strength of naturalistic observation?
Behaviour is real and natural → high ecological validity
191
What is a weakness of naturalistic observation?
Little control, and it can’t explain why behaviour happens
192
Where does naturalistic observation usually take place?
In everyday environments like homes, schools, or public places
193
What is structured observation?
Recording behaviour in a situation set up by the experimenter
193
Who creates the situation in structured observation?
The researcher sets it up to see how people react
194
What is a strength of structured observation?
More control → easier to compare across participants
195
What is a weakness of structured observation?
Behaviour may be less natural (not like real-world)
196
what are problems with observations ?
- observer influence (participant reactivity)
- observer bias
197
What are self-report measures?
Methods where participants describe themselves (e.g., interviews, questionnaires)
198
What is a clinical interview?
Flexible, open-ended → gives richer info, but less consistent
198
describe observer influence :
people act differently because they know they're being watched
198
describe observer bias :
researcher's expectations or opinions affect how they record behaviour
199
What is a structured interview?
Same set of questions for everyone → easy to compare, less detail
200
What is a questionnaire?
Quick, efficient, good for large groups, but answers may be biased or not honest
201
what are two problems with self-reports ?
- accuracy
- experimenter bias
202
describe accuracy :
less liekly to answer accurately if it could make them look bad
203
What are physiological methods?
Ways of studying biological responses (like brain activity, heart rate, blood pressure) to understand behavior.
204
What are some examples of physiological methods?
- Basic measures (heart rate, blood pressure)
- EEG & ERP (brain’s electrical activity)
- MRI (brain structure imaging)
205
What is a strength of physiological methods?
Objective, not based on self-report (harder to fake)
206
What is a weakness of physiological methods?
Can be expensive, may not directly explain behavior
207
What does EEG measure?
Records brain’s electrical activity in real time
208
What does ERP measure?
Tracks brain’s response to specific events or stimuli
209
What does MRI show?
Detailed images of brain structure
210
What is a main problem with physiological measures?
They only show correlation between brain activity and behavior, not causation
211
Does brain activity always cause behavior?
No — it may just be correlated with it
212
Why should we be cautious with physiological data?
Because correlation ≠ causation.
213
What is a case study?
A deep study of one individual over time
214
What are case studies good for?
Studying rare or unique cases
215
What is a limitation of case studies?
Not generalizable to everyone
215
What are some famous case studies?
Phineas Gage, Genie, H.M.
216
Why are case studies useful?
They help examine the effects of unique deficits (like brain damage)
217
descirbe the Phineas Gage (1848) case study :
Iron rod damaged his frontal lobe → personality and behavior changed
218
descirbe the Genie case study :
Lived in isolation for 13 years → never fully learned language or social skills
219
descirbe the H.M case study :
Had hippocampus removed for seizures → could not form new long-term memories
219
what are the two main probelms with case studies ?
- generalizability
- no control
220
What is the main problem with case studies?
They can’t always be applied to everyone
220
why is generalizability a problem ?
because we cant apply our finding from one person to everyone ... we dont want to make broad generalizations based off one person for everybody else
220
why is no control a problem ?
because we cannot rule out other causes
221
Why are case study findings limited?
They only study one person in detail, so results may not fit everyone else
222
What do correlational designs study?
The relationship between two variables
223
What is a perfect positive correlation? (+1.00)
As one variable increases, the other increases
224
What is no relationship? (0.00)
The variables do not affect each other
225
What is a perfect negative correlation? (–1.00)
As one variable increases, the other decreases
226
What is the key rule about correlation?
Correlation does not mean causation
226
FILL IN THE BLANK
_________ = only method that shows cause + effects
experiments
226
What is the goal of experiments?
To show cause-and-effect relationships
227
What is the independent variable?
The factor researchers change (manipulate)
228
What is the dependent variable?
The outcome that is measured
229
Why use random assignment?
To reduce bias and make groups equal
230
Why are experiments important?
They are the only method that shows cause and effect.
231
What are two ways to measure developmental change?
Longitudinal study and cross-sectional study
231
What is a longitudinal study?
Testing the same person at different times
232
What is a cross-sectional study?
Testing people of different ages at the same time
233
Which method is cheaper?
Cross-sectional study
234
between Longitudinal study and cross-sectional study, which are cheaper ?
cross-sectional
234
What is a cross-sectional study?
compares people of different ages at one time
235
What is the main strength of a cross-sectional study?
Quick and easy
236
What is the main weakness of a cross-sectional study?
Can’t track how individuals change over time
236
What is a longitudinal study?
Follows the same people over time to track changes
237
What is the main strength of a longitudinal study?
Shows real change over time
238
What is the main weakness of a longitudinal study?
Time-consuming, costly, and people may drop out
239
what are the issues to consider when measuring developmental changes?
- cost
- speed
- selective attrition
- practice effects
- cohort effects/age
- measuring stability/individual differences
240
What is a problem with cost in developmental research?
Longitudinal studies are expensive; cross-sectional is cheaper
241
What is a problem with speed in developmental research?
Longitudinal studies are slow and take years
242
What does selective attrition mean?
People drop out of the study over time
243
What are practice effects?
Repeated testing can change results
244
What are cohort effects?
Differences may be due to generation, not age
245
Why is measuring stability/individual differences hard?
It’s difficult to measure people consistently over time
Child Development 2040
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