1
Q
What is attachment?
A
The bond between a child and a caregiver
2
Q
What does “bidirectional interaction” mean?
A
Both the infant and the caregiver influence each other (both give and respond)
2
Q
What is emotional development?
A
How children learn to understand, express, and manage emotions
3
Q
What is temperament?
A
A child’s natural personality traits (e.g., calm, active, shy
3
Q
What is personality development?
A
How a child’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours form over time
4
Q
What is attachment?
A
A strong emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver
5
Q
What are primary reinforcers?
A
Basic needs that naturally satisfy babies (e.g., food, warmth)
5
Q
What does Learning Theory say about attachment?
A
Babies form attachments because caregivers provide rewards
6
Q
What is dyadic synchrony?
A
Back-and-forth matching of emotions, facial expressions, and behaviours (like taking turns in interactions)
7
Q
What are secondary reinforcers?
A
Things linked to primary needs (e.g., caregiver’s voice, face)
8
Q
Define primary reinforcer
A
A natural, basic need that brings comfort (e.g., food, warmth)
8
Q
What is environmental competence?
A
A child can explore safely because the caregiver is nearby
9
Q
What does Bowlby’s Ethological Theory say about attachment?
A
Attachment is biologically built-in
10
Q
according to Cognitive Developmental Theory, what does attachment depend on?
A
Object permanence
11
Q
What is object permanence?
A
Understanding that people and objects still exist even when not seen
12
Q
Why is caregiver protection important in this theory?
A
Caregiver protects the child and helps them survive
13
Q
Define Learning Theory
A
The idea that babies form attachments because caregivers give rewards
14
Q
Define secondary reinforcer
A
Something comforting because it’s linked to a primary need (e.g., caregiver’s voice/face)
14
Q
Define environmental competence
A
The child can explore safely because the caregiver is nearby
15
Q
Define Cognitive Developmental Theory
A
Attachment depends on the child understanding object permanence
16
Q
Define reunion behaviour
A
How the baby reacts when the caregiver comes back (calm, clingy, avoids, etc.)
16
Q
Define object permanence
A
Knowing people/objects still exist even when not seen
16
Q
Define wire-mesh surrogate mother
A
A hard, non-comforting fake mother used in the experiment
17
Q
Define Harlow & Zimmerman’s study
A
A study where baby monkeys were raised with two fake mothers: a soft terry-cloth one and a wire-mesh one
17
What were the findings of Harlow & Zimmerman (1959)?
Monkeys preferred the soft, comforting mother, showing emotional comfort is critical for attachment
17
What was the key idea of the Harlow study?
To test whether babies need comfort or food/structure more for attachment
17
Define Ethological Theory (John Bowlby)
The view that attachment is biologically built-in to protect the child
17
Define terry-cloth surrogate mother
A soft, comforting fake mother used in the experiment
17
Define protection (in attachment)
The caregiver keeps the child safe so they can survive
18
Define stranger anxiety
When a baby is wary or scared of unfamiliar people
18
Define exploratory behaviour
How confidently the baby explores the environment, especially when the caregiver is present
19
Define separation anxiety
When a baby gets upset when the caregiver leaves
20
Why is stranger anxiety important for attachment?
It shows the baby can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar people
20
What does separation anxiety tell us about attachment?
Stronger attachment → more distress when the caregiver leaves
21
Define separation anxiety
When a baby gets upset when the caregiver leaves
22
Define stranger anxiety
When a baby is wary or scared of unfamiliar people
22
What attachment behavior is observed in Episode 1?
Willingness to explore
22
Define reunion behaviour
How the baby reacts when the caregiver returns (calm, clingy, avoids, etc.)
22
Why is reunion behaviour measured?
It shows the quality of attachment (secure vs. insecure)
23
What behavior is observed?
Stranger anxiety
23
Define exploratory behaviour
How confidently a baby explores the environment, especially when the caregiver is present
23
How does exploratory behaviour show secure attachment?
Secure babies explore more because they trust the caregiver will protect them
23
Define reaction to reunion
How the baby responds when the caregiver returns (calm, clingy, avoids, seeks comfort)
23
Define the Strange Situation
A lab procedure with 7 episodes to observe how a baby reacts to separation, strangers, and reunions
24
What happens in Episode 1?
Experimenter brings parent and baby into playroom and leaves
24
Define willingness to explore
How confidently the baby plays and explores when the caregiver is present
25
What happens in Episode 6?
Stranger enters again and offers comfort
25
What happens in Episode 3?
Parent leaves; stranger responds to baby and comforts if upset
25
What attachment behavior is observed?
Separation anxiety
25
What happens in Episode 2?
Stranger enters, sits, and talks to parent
26
What behavior is observed?
stranger anxiety
27
What behavior is observed?
Reaction to reunion
28
What happens in Episode 4?
Parent returns, greets baby, comforts if needed; stranger leaves
29
What happens in Episode 5?
Parent leaves again
29
How do family circumstances affect secure attachment?
Stable, low-stress environments help secure bonds form
30
What attachment behavior is observed?
Separation anxiety
31
What happens in Episode 7?
Parent returns, comforts baby, and re-engages them with toys
32
Define avoidant attachment.
The baby is slow to greet or avoids the parent on reunion
33
What attachment behavior is observed?
Reaction to reunion
34
Define secure attachment
The baby actively seeks the parent on reunion and shows comfort and trust
34
What does a secure baby do during reunion?
Goes to the parent, is comforted easily, and resumes exploring
35
How does an avoidant baby act when the parent returns?
Acts “unbothered,” but is still stressed on the inside
36
Define resistant attachment
The baby shows anger, clinginess, or frustration on reunion
37
Why is disorganized attachment the least secure?
The baby has no clear strategy for dealing with stress or reunion
37
Define parenting styles (for secure attachment
Caregivers who are sensitive, accessible, and responsive
37
Define disorganized attachment
The baby shows confusion or odd behaviors (freezing, looking scared); greatest insecurity.
37
What is the key reunion behavior in resistant attachment?
The baby wants comfort but also resists it (pushes away while clinging)
38
How do parenting styles influence secure attachment?
Caregivers who are sensitive, accessible, and responsive
39
Define synchrony
A good “match” between parent and baby, responding smoothly to each other’s cues
40
Why is synchrony important?
It helps the baby feel understood and supported
41
Define family circumstances (in relation to attachment)
The stability and stress level of the home environment
42
Define infant health (in attachment context)
how physically well the baby is
43
Why does infant health matter for secure attachment?
healthy babies can interact more easily with caregivers
43
How does temperament affect secure attachment?
Easy or adaptable babies may form secure bonds more quickly
44
Define temperament
A baby’s natural personality (e.g., easy, adaptable)
45
Define positive affect
Showing more positive emotions (happier, more smiling, better mood)
46
How is positive affect linked to secure attachment?
Secure babies tend to be happier and display more positive emotions
47
Define “better relationships” in this context
Getting along well with peers and adults
48
Why do securely attached children have better relationships?
They trust others more easily and manage emotions better
48
Define cognitive advantages (for secure attachment)
Better problem-solving, persistence, and thinking skills
49
How is language development affected by secure attachment?
Secure babies often show stronger language skills
50
Define willingness to explore
Being confident to try new things and explore unfamiliar situations
51
Why do secure babies explore more?
They trust the caregiver’s support and feel safe
52
What is the main takeaway about culture and attachment?
Secure attachment is the most common everywhere
52
Define the overall cultural pattern in attachment
All cultures show mostly secure attachment, but avoidant/resistant levels vary by country
53
What attachment pattern is most common in the U.S.?
Secure attachment
54
How common is avoidant attachment in the U.S.?
Moderate level of avoidant babies
55
How common is resistant attachment in the U.S.?
Low
56
What attachment pattern is common in Germany?
Secure attachment is still common
57
What is higher in Germany compared to other countries?
Avoidant attachment (babies appear more independent)
58
What is low in Germany?
Resistant attachment
59
What attachment pattern is very high in Japan?
Secure attachment
60
Why is avoidant attachment very low in Japan?
Babies rarely separate from caregivers, so avoidant behavior is rare
61
Why is resistant attachment higher in Japan?
Babies become more upset during separation due to less practice being apart
62
Define nonorganic failure to thrive
When a child doesn’t grow properly because of emotional neglect, not medical reasons
63
Define deprivation dwarfism
Physical growth delays caused by emotional and social deprivation
64
What causes nonorganic failure to thrive?
Lack of love, stimulation, or consistent care
65
What leads to deprivation dwarfism?
Chronic neglect, lack of affection, and low stimulation
66
How does maltreatment affect cognition?
It can cause delays in thinking, learning, and problem-solving
67
What struggles might maltreated children face?
Attention problems, memory issues, and weaker school performance
68
define the physiological component of emotion
Body reactions like changes in breathing and heart rate
69
Give examples of physiological responses.
Respiration and heart rate changes
70
Define the behavioural component of emotion
What you can see — outward emotional actions
71
Define conscious experience (in emotion)
The subjective feeling you’re aware of
71
Give examples of behavioural expressions
Facial expressions, laughter, crying
72
When do primary emotions appear?
Some are present at birth; others develop over the first year
73
What is a conscious emotional experience?
Your personal, internal feeling (e.g., “I feel scared,” “I feel happy”)
74
Define primary (basic) emotions
The early emotions babies show from birth to the first year
75
Why are these emotions present early?
They are built-in, basic reactions to the world
75
Which primary emotions are present at birth?
Interest, distress, contentment
76
Which emotions develop over the first year?
Anger, sadness, joy, surprise, fear
77
Why do later emotions develop gradually?
Babies need more brain development and experience to express them
78
Define self-conscious (secondary/complex) emotions
Emotions that appear in the 2nd year and require self-recognition and understanding rules/standards
79
Why are they called “complex” emotions?
They need higher thinking — knowing “that’s me” and knowing right/wrong
79
What does the biological approach say about where emotions come from?
Emotions are built-in and part of our biology
80
List the five self-conscious emotions
Embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, pride
80
When do self-conscious emotions begin to appear?
In the 2nd year of life
80
What two abilities are required for self-conscious emotions?
1. Self-recognition (knowing “this is me”)
2. Understanding rules/standards (knowing what’s right, wrong, or expected)
81
Define emotional contagion
When babies “catch” others’ emotions (e.g., cry when another baby cries)
81
Define the biological approach to emotional development
The view that emotions are innate — we are born with them
81
Define the behaviourist approach to emotional development
The view that emotions are learned through experiences
82
Define basic emotional responding
Showing simple emotional reactions to others (smiling, looking sad)
82
How are emotions learned in the behaviourist approach?
Through conditioning, reinforcement, and environmental experiences
83
Define the functionist approach to emotional development
The idea that emotions serve a purpose
84
What purpose do emotions serve according to this approach?
They help us adapt, respond, and survive in our environment
85
When does emotional contagion appear?
At birth (newborns)
85
Define facial expression discrimination
The ability to tell different facial expressions apart
86
When do infants start discriminating facial expressions?
Around 2 months
87
When do basic emotional responses appear?
Around 3 months
87
What does this show?
Awareness and verbal understanding of others’ feelings
88
What do infants recognize at 7 months?
They can recognize emotions in others
89
Define intermodal perception (emotion)
Matching emotional information across senses (e.g., matching a face to a voice)
90
When does intermodal perception help infants with emotions?
Around 7 months
91
What emotional skill develops by age 2?
Talking about others’ emotions (“He’s sad,” “She’s mad”)
92
What does temperament describe?
How a child naturally reacts (e.g., calm, active, easily upset)
92
Define temperament
A child’s natural style of responding emotionally and behaviourally to events
93
What does “style of responding emotionally and behaviourally” mean?
The way a child expresses emotions and behaves in response to the environment
94
What does it mean that temperament involves “stable individual characteristics”?
These traits stay fairly consistent over time and across situations
94
Why is style of responding important?
It helps explain differences in how babies handle stress or excitement
95
Do temperament traits change easily?
No — they are relatively stable as the child grows
96
Define activity level
How active or energetic a child is; pace or vigor of activities
97
What does a high activity level look like?
Lots of movement, energy, and constant activity
98
Define irritability
How easily or intensely a child becomes upset over negative events
99
What does high irritability look like?
Getting upset quickly or strongly when frustrated
100
Define soothability
How easily a child can be calmed after being upset
100
What does high soothability look like?
The child settles or relaxes quickly after distress
101
Define fearfulness
How wary or cautious a child is in new or intense situations
102
What does high fearfulness look like?
Hesitant, cautious, or scared in unfamiliar settings
102
Define sociability
How open a child is to social interaction and stimulation
103
What does high sociability look like?
Enjoying people, being friendly, seeking social engagement
104
what are the 5 traits that temperment includes ?
- Activity level
- irritability
- soothability
- fearfulness
- sociability
104
who created Model of Temperament ?
Chess & Thomas (1977)
105
What did Chess & Thomas identify?
Three types of children based on nine temperament traits
106
Define activity level
How active or energetic a child is
107
Define distractibility
How easily a child’s attention shifts
108
Define adaptability
How well a child adjusts to changes
108
What was Kagan trying to predict?
Later fearfulness or shyness
109
Define intensity of reaction
The strength of a child’s emotional responses
110
Define quality of mood
Whether the child’s general mood is mostly positive or negative
111
Define rhythmicity (regularity)
How regular a child’s routines are (sleep, eating, etc.)
112
Define approach/withdrawal
How a child reacts to new people or situations (approaches or avoids)
113
Define attention span/persistence
Ability to stay focused and continue an activity
114
What is the purpose of the nine traits in the Chess & Thomas model?
To classify children into three temperament types (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up)
114
Define threshold of reaction
How sensitive a child is to stimuli
115
Why is the Model of Temperamentimportant?
It shows that temperament traits are measurable and predictable
115
Define an easy child
A child with regular routines, a positive mood, and who adapts well to change
116
What behaviors show an easy temperament?
Regular sleeping/eating, generally happy, adjusts easily
117
Define a difficult child
A child with irregular routines, slow adaptation, and strong/intense emotional reactions
118
Define a slow-to-warm-up child
A child who is inactive, slow to adapt at first, but warms up gradually over time
118
What behaviors show a difficult temperament?
Unpredictable routines, gets upset easily, reacts strongly
119
What behaviors show this temperament?
Low activity, cautious at first, then becomes more comfortable
120
what term is defined by the following (in the model of tempermant) :
- low activity, more passive
- slow to adapt at first
- gradually warms with time
slow-to-warm-up child
121
what term is defined by the following (in the model of tempermant) :
- irregular routines
- slow to adapt
- strong, intense emotional reaction
Difficult child
122
what term is defined by the following (in the model of tempermant) :
- regular routines
- generally positive mood
- adopts well to change
easy child
123
What is the main idea about physiology and temperament?
Children with different temperaments show different biological (body) responses
124
Define fetal activity
How much a baby moves before birth
124
How does heart rate relate to temperament?
Heart rates vary with temperament — some infants have naturally faster or more reactive heart rates
124
What does a highly reactive heart rate suggest?
A child may be more sensitive or easily aroused
125
How does fetal activity relate to temperament?
Some babies are more active even in the womb, which can predict an active temperament
126
Define cortisol
A hormone released in response to stress
127
How does cortisol relate to temperament?
Some children release more stress hormones, making them more reactive or cautious
128
What is the limbic system?
The part of the brain that processes emotions
128
How does the limbic system relate to temperament?
It reacts differently depending on a child’s temperament (more or less reactive)
129
What did Kagan study?
Infants’ responses to a toy (mobile) to measure reactivity
129
Define a low reactive infant
An infant who is calm, shows little movement, and is less stimulated by new things
130
Define a high reactive infant
An infant who shows lots of movement, crying, and kicking when stimulated (very reactive)
131
What does high reactivity predict?
Higher likelihood of becoming fearful or shy later
132
What does low reactivity predict?
A tendency to be more outgoing and less fearful later
133
What is the first social relationship an infant has?
With their parents/caregivers
134
What does “strong emotional bond” also mean?
A close, loving connection between infant and caregiver
135
In attachment, what is the child doing while interacting?
Learning to read the caregiver as well
135
What does bidirectional interaction mean?
Both the infant and caregiver influence each other (both give and respond)
136
What is dyadic synchrony?
A style of interaction that develops between caregiver and infant
137
What behaviours are part of dyadic synchrony?
Matching emotions, facial expressions, and behaviours; taking turns in interactions
138
what can parents learn to do?
Read signals from their babies and know how to react
138
What does early attachment lead to?
Long-lasting effects
139
What does “dyadic synchrony” involve for both partners?
Adjusting behaviour for each other
140
What are primary reinforcers?
Things that directly satisfy needs (e.g., food, warmth)
141
What are secondary reinforcers linked to?
Things linked to primary needs (e.g., smiling, voice)
141
How does a secondary reinforcer develop?
The mother provides food, so the mother becomes a secondary reinforcer while food is primary
142
Why do infants develop attachments according to learning theory (black note)?
Infants develop attachments to their mothers because they feel protected and know they’ll get a response if in trouble
143
In cognitive developmental theory, what does object permanence involve?
The understanding that people exist even when not seen.
144
Why is object permanence important for attachment?
Attachment depends on object permanence
145
What helps maintain attachment over time?
Around the same time object permanence develops, attachment becomes a primary reinforcer
146
What is the basic message of ethological theory?
Attachment is biologically built-in
147
In ethological theory, what does the caregiver provide?
Protection that helps the child survive
148
How does contact with a parent help?
Contact with parent helps protect safety.
148
What does protection and support from caregivers lead to?
Environmental competence
149
How does environmental competence develop?
Child explores safely because caregiver is nearby
149
what is the most notable theory of attachment ?
Child explores safely because caregiver is nearby.
150
TRUE OR FALSE
quality of attachment plays a role in how trusting the environment/relationship is
TRUE
150
what did john bowlby believe?
protection and support when explorin gthe environment
151
what did the monkey video in the Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) study show ?
monkey was reluctant to spend any more time with wire monkey than had to
152
TRUE OR FALSE
the Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) study is not just about getting food; attachment is an adaptive biologically programmed response system
TRUE
153
define measuring attachment :
individual differences that differ in the extent and quality of anxiety
154
the follow defines which type of measured attachment ? :
- mild or extreme discomfort
- individuals differ
- seperation anxiety merges around 6-8 months (peaks around 14-18 montjs, then tends to taper off at some extent
seperation anxiety
155
the follow defines which type of measured attachment ?
- become more fearful of strangers after creates first attachment
- peak at 8 months then slowly taper's off
stranger anxiety
156
the follow defines which type of measured attachment ?
- happy when resturs to the one they recognize
reuinion behaviour
157
the follow defines which type of measured attachment ?
- use caregiver as secure base
- keep an eye on caregiver
exploratory behaviour
158
what does the Ainsworth’s Strange Situation measure ?
qualiry of attachment between ages of 1 anad 2 years old
159
why was the Ainsworth’s Strange Situation created to measure ?
created to measure individual changes for assessment
160
what age is the Ainsworth’s Strange Situation better for ?
kids above the age of 1 and under 2
160
TRUE OR FALSE
in the Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, babies use parents as secure base to allow exploration
TRUE
161
TRUE OR FALSE
in the Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, babues have positive reactions when parents return
TRUE
162
The following is for which category of Attachment Quality ?
- 65% of north american babies
- happy to explore, but not if parentisn't around
- preference for parents over stranger
- less fearful of stranger as long as parent is around
Secure attachment (Type B)
162
The following is for which category of Attachment Quality ?
- 20% of north american babies
avoidant attachment (type A)
162
The following is for which category of Attachment Quality ?
- stressed even if parent is present
Resistant attachment (Type C)
163
The following is for which category of Attachment Quality ?
- 5%
- greatest distress
- don't use parent as secure base
disorganized attachment (type D)
164
What do sensitive, available, and responsive caregivers help build?
They help build trust.
165
What does a good “match” between parent and baby do?
It helps the baby respond to cues smoothly.
166
What happens if there is not a good match between caregiver and infant?
It can lead to insecure attachment.
166
How do stable, low-stress environments affect attachment?
They support secure attachments.
167
TRUE OR FALSE
parenting styles plays a role but it is not everything
TRUE
168
Why can healthy babies interact more easily?
Because they can engage more, helping relationships form smoothly
169
How does infant temperament affect attachment?
Easy/adaptable babies may form secure bonds more quickly.
170
How do adults treat sick infants differently?
Relationships may differ because infants need more help or nurturing.
171
TRUE OR FALSE
secure attachment most common throughout despite any cultural changes
TRUE
172
____________ _________no physical problems but causes physical impacts throughout life
Nonorganic failure
172
define Nonorganic failure :
a pediatric condition where a child, usually under two years old, exhibits poor weight gain and stunted growth without an identified underlying medical cause
173
What happens in the body during physiological emotion changes?
Body reactions like breathing changes and heart rate changes
174
What does behavioural emotion expression include?
What you can see — facial expressions, laughing, crying
174
What are emotions influenced by?
A person’s interpretation of events
175
What brain activity is linked to positive emotions?
More left frontal activity.
175
What is conscious experience in emotions?
The feeling you’re aware of (your personal subjective emotion).
176
What brain activity is linked to negative emotions?
More right frontal activity.
177
How do we measure emotions?
Using facial expressions; the Facial Action Coding System (FACS).
177
are facial expression's a reliable determination of feelings?
are never 100% reliable
178
how might we measure emotions ?
Using facial expressions; the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
178
what does FACS stand for?
- facial
- action
- coding
-system
179
what is how a person interprets an emotional stage?
Conscious Experience
179
negative emotions = which part of brain?
right frontal activity (fear and anger)
180
positive emotions = which part of brain?
left frontal activity (happiness)
180
What are primary emotions?
Universal emotions shown early in life and shared across cultures.
181
whats an example of a primary example?
smiling (there from the very beginning)
181
How do emotions develop in the first year?
Babies start with a few basic emotions, and more complex ones appear over the first year
182
What does anger require?
The baby must be frustrated at something.
183
What does sadness require?
Some cognitive recognition (knowing something is wrong)
184
What does fear require?
The baby must interpret the situation (like knowing a parent is gone)
184
what is a major need of communication early on in life before one can speak ?
crying (phjysical needs)
185
FILL IN THE BLANK
_____________ = responding to other people
early smiles
185
What social understanding is needed for later emotions?
Babies need to learn others’ perspectives and social rules (e.g., knowing what is expected)
186
between anger, sadness, joy, surprise, and fear ... which is targetted at someone ?
anger
187
TRUE OR FALSE
secondary/complex emotions differ by culture and environment
TRUE
188
What does the Behaviourist Approach say about emotions?
Emotions are learned from experience (e.g., conditioning)
188
What does the Biological Approach say about emotions?
Emotions are innate — we are born with them and babies show some emotions very early, meaning they must be innate
189
How do these theories relate to each other?
They are different ways of understanding emotions, and both contain some truth
189
What does the Functionist Approach say about emotions?
Emotions serve a purpose — they help us adapt and respond to stimuli
190
at what age/when can infants mimick facial expressions?
newborns
191
What is temperament?
An emotional trait that stays pretty stable within one individual.
191
What did Chess & Thomas identify?
3 main categories of infants.
192
What percentage of infants are “easy children”?
About 40%.
193
Characteristics of an “easy child”?
- Easy to get along with
- Regular routines
- Generally positive mood
- Adapts well to change
193
What percentage of infants are “difficult children”?
About 10%
194
What percentage of infants are “slow-to-warm-up children”?
About 15%
194
Characteristics of a “difficult child”?
- More unpredictable
- Harder to deal with
- Irregular routines
- Slow to adapt
- Strong, intense emotional reactions
195
Characteristics of a “slow-to-warm-up child”?
- Low intensity of reactions
- Initially passive
- Slow to adapt at first
- Gradually warms with time
195
Do most children fit only one category?
No — most show a mix of the categories
196
TRUE OR FALSE
stress/cortisol is tied to positive emotions as well as negative
TRUE
197
which system deals with emotional differneces ?
limbic system
198
What did Kagan study?
He examined emotional reactivity in children
199
How does Kagan measure infant reactivity?
By watching their response to a mobile toy
200
TRUE OR FALSE
researchers can predict from a young age what might be expected later on in life... not for sure but a solid prediction
TRUE
201
What are high-reactive infants like?
The mobile is unpleasant to them; they show lots of movement, crying, kicking — very stimulated
202
What are low-reactive infants like?
The mobile doesn’t bother them; they stay calm, little movement — less stimulated
203
What does reactivity predict?
- High-reactive → more likely to become fearful or shy later.
- Low-reactive → more outgoing.
204
Are these predictions guaranteed?
No — temperament can change with age and environment; not a solid prediction
Child Development 2040
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