1
Q
What is information processing?
A
A way to understand how the brain takes in, stores, and uses information (step-by-step)
2
Q
What does it mean to register and encode information?
A
Noticing information and turning it into a form the brain can use
3
Q
What does it mean to retrieve information?
A
Pulling information back out of memory when we need it
4
Q
What does it mean to store information?
A
Keeping the information in memory for later
5
Q
What does it mean to operate on information?
A
Using information to make decisions, solve problems, or think
5
Q
What are strategies in information processing?
A
The steps or methods you use to solve problems or remember things
5
Q
What is the computer analogy in psychology?
A
The idea that the brain works like a computer (takes in info, stores it, uses it)
5
Q
In the computer analogy, what is hardware?
A
The body’s physical system — mainly the nervous system (sends and receives signals)
6
Q
In the computer analogy, what is software?
A
The “thinking tools” your mind uses (rules, strategies, mental programs)
7
Q
What are information processing limits?
A
Natural limits on how much info we can take in, store, remember, and use
7
Q
What are capacity limits?
A
We can only handle a certain amount of information at one time
8
Q
What are rules in information processing?
A
The guidelines your brain follows when making decisions or thinking
9
Q
What are mental programs?
A
Thinking routines your brain uses automatically (like habits)
10
Q
What are speed limits in information processing?
A
There’s a limit to how fast we can process information
11
Q
Which steps of information processing have limits?
A
All steps — registering, storing, retrieving, and using information
11
Q
What happens when we exceed capacity limits?
A
Information gets forgotten, ignored, or processed incorrectly
11
Q
Why do speed limits matter in thinking?
A
Because we can only process information so fast, which affects reaction time and understanding
12
Q
Information Processing: Limits ?
A
- register and encode information
- store information
- retrieve information
- operate on information
12
Q
Why do capacity limits matter in learning?
A
Because too much information at once can overwhelm the brain
13
Q
What is focused attention in early childhood?
A
The ability to stay focused on one activity or object without getting distracted
14
Q
What can improve speed limits?
A
Practice, familiarity, and automatic skills (things your brain can do faster over time)
15
Q
How do toddlers (around age 2) show focused attention?
A
They switch activities quickly and don’t stay focused for long
16
Q
How do preschoolers (around ages 4–5) show focused attention?
A
They can focus longer and stay with one activity (like watching TV for 30 minutes)
17
Q
Who would notice a change in a flashing image faster — a 2-year-old or a 5-year-old?
A
A 5-year-old, because their attention skills are more developed
18
Why do older children perform better at spotting changes?
They can stay focused longer and process visual information more steadily
19
How do children around ages 6–7 focus their attention?
They can ignore distractions and focus on the important/relevant parts of a task
19
How do preschoolers (around ages 3–5) focus their attention?
They get distracted by things that stand out (flashy, colorful, attention-grabbing details)
20
Why do older kids focus better than preschoolers?
Their attention system is more developed, so they know what matters and what doesn’t
20
In the gorilla task, who would perform better — a 7-year-old or a 4-year-old?
A 7-year-old, because they can focus on the correct details and ignore irrelevant ones
20
What does “weakening of response” mean in habituation?
The baby loses interest and pays less attention with repeated exposure
20
What is habituation in infants?
When a baby gets used to something and starts paying less attention to it
21
What distracts younger children during tasks?
Flashy, exciting features that catch their eye (even if they’re not important)
21
What is classical conditioning in infants?
When a baby learns that two events go together (associating one thing with another)
22
What is operant conditioning in infants?
When a baby learns from rewards or consequences
22
What does “learning/memory in infants” mean overall?
Even from the beginning of life, babies are good learners and pick up patterns quickly
23
What is imitation in infants?
When a baby copies what they see someone else do
24
Do all infants habituate at the same speed?
No — some habituate fast, some slow, and some show mixed patterns
24
What is habituation?
Gradually responding less to something because you’ve seen it many times
25
What does infant habituation show?
If babies get used to something, it means they remembered it in some way
26
What are the 3 habituation types?
- Rapid (60%)
- Slow (10%)
- Idiosyncratic/mixed (30%)
27
What does fast habituation predict?
Stronger cognitive skills later (better processing, learning, and attention)
28
Why is habituation important in development?
It shows how efficiently a baby can process and remember information
29
What is Idiosyncratic habituation?
The baby’s responses are inconsistent or mixed — not clearly fast or slow; varies from trial to trial
29
What is Rapid habituation?
The baby quickly loses interest in repeated stimuli — shows fast learning and strong information processing
30
What is Slow habituation?
The baby takes a long time to lose interest — slower processing or slower learning of the stimulus
31
Which habituation type is most common?
Rapid habituation (60%)
32
What percent of infants show idiosyncratic habituation?
About 30%
32
what is an example of CR (Conditioned Response)?
Dog salivates to the tone alone
33
Which habituation type is least common?
Slow habituation (10%)
34
What is the US (Unconditioned Stimulus)?
Something that naturally causes a response.
34
what is an example of US (Unconditioned Stimulus)?
Meat powder makes the dog salivate automatically
35
what is an example of UR (Unconditioned Response)?
Dog salivates when it sees/meets food.
35
What is the UR (Unconditioned Response)?
The natural, automatic reaction to the US
36
What is the CR (Conditioned Response)?
The learned response to the CS
36
What is the CS (Conditioned Stimulus)?
Something that originally means nothing, but becomes meaningful after learning
37
what is an example of CS (Condition Stimulus)?
A tone that the dog learns to connect with food
38
What was the operant conditioning task in this study?
Babies learned to kick their foot to make a mobile move
38
What’s the difference between UR and CR?
- UR: Natural reaction (no learning)
- CR: Learned reaction (after conditioning)
38
How does classical conditioning work?
The CS (tone) + US (food) happen together many times → the dog learns the connection → tone alone causes salivation
38
What was the CS (Conditioned Stimulus) in this study?
Head-stroking — at first, it does NOT cause sucking
38
What happened when the mother’s voice played during lower sucking frequency?
Newborns slowed their sucking to hear her voice
39
What was the US (Unconditioned Stimulus) in Blass, Ganchrow & Steiner (1984)?
Sugar — it naturally makes newborns turn their head and suck
40
What did Rovee-Collier et al. study?
How infants learn and remember actions using operant conditioning
40
What was the UR (Unconditioned Response) in this study?
Head-orienting and sucking — the newborn’s automatic reaction to sugar
40
What was the “reward” for kicking?
The mobile moved — something the baby liked
40
What does this study show about newborns?
Even 1–2-day-old babies can form associations (classical conditioning)
41
What was the CR (Conditioned Response) in this study?
Head-orienting and sucking to the head-stroking alone (after learning)
42
What happened 2 weeks later (at 6 months old)?
Babies still kicked their feet when they saw the same mobile again
42
What does the kicking after 2 weeks show?
Infants recognize the mobile and remember the motor action
43
Why is this study important?
It shows even young infants can form long-lasting memories
43
What type of memory did this study demonstrate in infants?
Memory for motor patterns (remembering an action they learned earlier)
43
What does this study show about newborns?
they can learn very early and can change their behavior to get something they prefer
44
What did DeCasper & Fifer (1980) study?
Whether 3-day-old newborns can learn and show preferences through conditioning
45
What happened when the mother’s voice played during greater sucking frequency?
Newborns increased their sucking to hear their mom’s voice more
46
What preference did newborns show?
They preferred hearing their mother’s voice
47
What type of learning does this demonstrate?
Operant conditioning — babies adjust sucking to produce a desired outcome (hearing mom)
48
What is imitation in infants?
When babies copy actions or facial expressions they see
48
What kinds of actions do newborns imitate?
Simple facial movements like sticking out the tongue or opening the mouth
49
What does imitation show about newborns?
They are capable of very early social learning
50
Why is imitation important?
It helps babies connect with caregivers and learn from others
51
Is newborn imitation automatic or learned?
It is an early built-in ability that supports bonding and communication
52
What did Meltzoff (1988) study?
Whether infants can imitate an action after a delay
53
What can 9-month-olds do in delayed imitation?
They can copy an action even 24 hours after seeing it
54
What does delayed imitation show?
Babies remember the action — they store a mental representation
55
Why is this study important?
It proves infants have recall memory, not just immediate copying
55
What is recall in this context?
Remembering something after a delay without seeing it again
56
What does imitation after 24 hours tell us about infant memory?
Their memory is stronger than we might expect at that age
57
Why is memory important for mental development?
Because mental growth depends on storing experiences and using them later
58
How does memory help us act wisely?
It lets us use past experiences to make better decisions in the future
59
What does the phrase “file away experiences” mean?
The brain saves important events so we can remember and use them later
60
How does memory support cognitive development?
It helps children learn patterns, understand the world, and grow smarter
61
Does memory become more important as children get older?
Yes — around ages 2–4, memory becomes more detailed and meaningful
62
Do sensory memory and long-term memory capacities change after infancy?
No — they stay mostly the same after the first few months
62
According to Piaget, when does memory start?
He thought before age 2 (infancy) there wasn’t real memory — but this is incorrect; infants do remember
63
What is sensory memory?
The ability to briefly hold information we see or hear before it fades
64
What is long-term memory?
The system for storing information for long periods (stable and lasting)
65
Does short-term memory change with development?
Yes — it keeps improving as children grow
66
Why does short-term memory improve with age?
Because kids develop better strategies for remembering
67
Which type of memory shows the most development over childhood?
Short-term memory
68
Which memory systems are stable early on?
Sensory memory and long-term memory
69
What is digit span?
A test where you try to remember and repeat a series of numbers
70
What does digit span measure?
Short-term memory capacity
71
Does digit span change with age?
Yes — it increases as children get older
72
Why does digit span improve over development?
Because short-term memory grows and kids learn better remembering strategies
73
What do longer number lists test?
The limits of how much information short-term memory can hold at once
74
How does processing speed improve short-term memory?
The brain handles information faster, so it can remember more
75
How do strategies improve short-term memory?
Kids learn better ways to remember (like rehearsal or grouping)
76
What is metacognition?
Understanding how your own memory works and how to use it better
77
How does metacognition help memory?
Kids start choosing the best strategies for remembering
78
How do physiological (brain) developments improve memory?
As the brain matures, memory systems become stronger and more efficient
79
How does increasing knowledge improve memory?
The more you know, the easier it is to connect and remember new info
80
How does processing speed change with age?
Older children process information faster than younger children
81
What types of tasks show faster processing in older children?
Both easy tasks (matching pictures) and hard tasks (math problems)
82
Why does faster processing matter?
It helps improve memory, problem-solving, and overall thinking skills
83
What is one example of a task that tests processing speed?
Solving a simple math expression quickly or matching images
84
What does faster processing allow children to do?
Understand and respond to information more quickly
85
What are cognitive strategies?
Planned, deliberate mental steps used to help you do a task better
85
Why are cognitive strategies important?
They improve performance by helping you remember, organize, or solve problems more effectively
86
What does “goal-directed operations” mean?
Mental actions you do on purpose to reach a goal (like remembering something)
87
Are cognitive strategies automatic or intentional?
Intentional — you choose to use them
88
What is an example of a cognitive strategy?
Rehearsing information, grouping items, or making a plan to solve a problem
89
What is production in strategy development?
The ability to produce or use a strategy
90
What does “ability to use strategies” mean?
Knowing how to apply a strategy when needed
91
What is utilization in strategy development?
Recognizing that a strategy is helpful and choosing to actually use it
92
What’s the difference between production and utilization?
- Production: You can use the strategy
- Utilization: You choose to use it because you know it helps
93
Why is strategy utilization important?
It shows the child understands when and why a strategy improves performance
94
What does the strategy development graph show overall?
As children get older, they use more advanced memory strategies
95
What is Strategy 1?
A simple early strategy used by very young children (used briefly, then fades)
96
What is Strategy 2?
A basic strategy that kids use more as they grow, then use less later
97
What is Strategy 3?
A more advanced strategy that increases with age and is used well during middle childhood
98
What is Strategy 4?
The most advanced strategy — used heavily by older children
99
Why do different strategies peak at different ages?
Children replace simpler strategies with more effective ones as their brains mature
100
What does increasing strategy use show?
Better memory skills and improved problem-solving
101
Do younger and older children use strategies the same way?
No — younger kids rely on simple strategies; older kids use advanced, efficient ones
102
What are cognitive strategies?
Planned mental steps used on purpose to help you do a task better
103
Why do cognitive strategies help?
They improve performance by organizing, remembering, or solving problems more effectively
104
What is metacognition?
Knowing how your own thinking works and being able to monitor and control it
105
Why is metacognition important?
It helps you choose the best strategies and adjust how you think to learn better
106
What does “regulating cognitive processes” mean?
Checking and guiding your thinking so you stay on track and understand better
107
What is metacognition?
Knowing how your own thinking works and how to control or improve it
108
How does metacognition help learning?
The more you understand how thinking works, the better you can regulate it
109
What is metamemory?
Knowing how memory works — what’s easy or hard to remember and why
109
What do 3–4-year-olds understand about memory?
They know small groups of items are easier to remember than large ones
110
What don’t young children understand about memory?
They don’t realize related items are easier to recall
111
Do young children understand the effort needed for good memory?
No — they don’t fully understand that remembering requires more effort
112
Are children accurate about their memory skills?
No — they tend to be overly confident and think their memory is better than it is
113
Why is metamemory important?
It helps children choose better strategies and improve memory performance
114
What did Yussen & Levy (1975) study?
How accurately children can estimate their own memory abilities
115
How do preschoolers estimate their memory span?
They overestimate how much they can remember (very optimistic)
116
How does actual memory span compare to estimated span in preschoolers?
Actual memory is much lower than what they think
117
How do third graders estimate their memory?
Still overestimate, but their predictions are closer to the truth
118
How accurate are college students at estimating memory span?
Very accurate — smallest gap between estimated and actual memory
119
What does this study show about metacognition?
Metacognitive accuracy improves with age
120
What happens to the gap between estimated and actual memory over development?
It gets smaller as children grow older
121
What is Theory of Mind?
Knowing that you have your own thoughts, feelings, and beliefs AND understanding that other people have their own too
122
Why is Theory of Mind important?
It helps us predict other people’s behavior and understand their intentions
123
How does Theory of Mind change with age?
As kids get older, they think more about others’ thoughts and less only about their own
124
What does Theory of Mind help with socially?
Interpreting people’s actions, emotions, and reasons for doing things
125
What is one classic Theory of Mind test?
The SMARTIES task — shows that knowledge is not absolute and others can have different beliefs
126
What does successful Theory of Mind mean?
You understand that someone else can believe something that you know is false
127
What does having more knowledge help with?
It makes it easier to process new information
127
How does prior knowledge affect thinking?
It helps the brain think faster and more efficiently
128
Why does more knowledge improve learning?
Because the brain can connect new information to what you already know
129
What is the main benefit of increased knowledge?
More extensive and more efficient information processing
130
Who were the subjects in Chi (1978)?
Graduate students and 10-year-old chess experts
131
What tasks were used in Chi (1978)?
Digit Span Task + Memory for chess board pieces
132
What did Chi (1978) show about knowledge?
Knowledge in a specific area boosts short-term memory for that type of information
133
Who remembered chess pieces better—grad students or 10-year-old chess players?
10-year-old chess players (because of expert knowledge)
134
Who did better on the digit span task?
Graduate students (because digit span is general STM, not domain-specific)
135
who performed better on the Digit Span Task in Chi (1978)?
Graduate students > 10-year-olds
136
Who performed better on the Chess Memory Task in Chi (1978)?
10-year-old chess experts > graduate students
137
What does the Chess Task result show?
Domain knowledge boosts memory in that specific area
138
What does the Digit Span result show?
General STM ability is higher in older individuals (adults > children)
139
What was the big conclusion of Chi (1978)?
Expertise can outweigh age in memory for familiar, meaningful material
139
What is myelination of neurons?
A process where neurons get a fatty coating (myelin) that makes signals travel faster
140
Which brain areas myelinate first?
Sensory and motor areas (they finish early)
141
When do frontal areas finish myelinating?
Not until adolescence — they develop much later
142
What is synaptic pruning?
The brain removes unused/extra connections
143
Why is synaptic pruning important?
It reduces redundancy and makes the brain more efficient
143
What is recognition memory?
Knowing you’ve seen something before
144
What is recall memory?
Bringing information back without any cues
145
What is source memory?
Remembering where you learned something
146
What is eyewitness memory?
Remembering events you observed (can be inaccurate)
147
What is autobiographical memory?
Personal life memories; starts forming in early childhood
148
What did the children study in Myers & Perlmutter (1978)?
They studied 18 items
149
How good were 2-year-olds at recognition?
They correctly recognized 80% of items
150
How good were 4-year-olds at recognition?
They correctly recognized 90% of items
151
How good were 2-year-olds at recall?
They recalled only about 20% of items
152
How good were 4-year-olds at recall?
They recalled about 40% of items
153
Which is easier for young children: recognition or recall?
Recognition is much easier than recall, especially for younger children
154
What is source memory?
The ability to remember where information came from (the source)
155
How do preschoolers perform on source memory tasks?
Preschoolers are poor at source monitoring
156
How does source memory change with age?
It gradually improves as children get older
157
What do younger children remember about an event?
They remember the main event, but very few details
158
What happens when younger children are prompted?
They recall more correct details and more incorrect details (highly suggestible)
159
Why are young children very suggestible?
Because prompts/questions can easily influence or change their memory
160
Why do children 5 and under rarely testify in court?
They are very suggestible and may give inaccurate details
160
What memory function is the frontal lobe responsible for?
Source memory — remembering where information came from
161
What memory functions are linked to the hippocampus and cortical areas?
Recall and strategic memory (using memory strategies)
161
What memory abilities are handled by subcortical areas?
Habituation and recognition (basic early memory skills)
162
Which brain area supports early, simple memory functions?
Subcortical areas — used in infants for recognizing things and habituating
163
Which brain areas support complex memory strategies as children grow?
Cortical areas + hippocampus
164
What is autobiographical memory?
Memory for information about yourself (personal life events)
164
Do young children have autobiographical memories?
yes, but they’re harder for them to retrieve clearly later on
165
How does autobiographical memory change with age?
As children get older, they recall more details
166
What is your earliest memory?
Think about the very first event you can remember
167
Why guess how old you were during this memory?
It helps you see if the memory is real or too early to remember
167
What is a common issue with early memories?
We often remember stories told about the event, not the event itself
168
At what age do real autobiographical memories usually start?
Around 3–4 years old
169
What is infantile amnesia?
Adults cannot remember events from ages 0–2
170
Why don’t we remember events from ages 0–2?
Very few memories are formed or kept during this time
171
Around what age does memory recall start increasing sharply?
Around 3–4 years old.
172
What happens to memory from ages 4–8?
More memories are kept as children get older
173
Around what age do children recall many more details of big events?
Around age 4–5
174
What does the graph show about memory proportion per year?
It rises from almost 0 before age 2 and increases steadily until about age 7–8
175
What does infantile amnesia explain in adults?
Why adults cannot recall memories from early infancy
176
What happens to memory for big events (birth, hospital visit, death, moving) as children get older?
Memory for big events improves with age
177
How well do very young children (ages 1–2) remember big events?
They remember very little about big events
178
Are emotional or major events remembered better than everyday events?
Yes, emotional/major events are easier to remember
179
What types of events were tested in the study?
Birth, hospital, death, and moving
180
What is a retrieval problem in infantile amnesia?
The memory was stored, but we can’t access it later
181
What is an encoding problem in infantile amnesia?
The memory was never fully encoded in the first place
182
Which explanation says early memories exist but can’t be reached?
Retrieval problem
183
What did Freud think caused infantile amnesia?
Repressed memories — forgetting as a defense mechanism
183
Which explanation says early memories were never formed properly?
Encoding problem
184
What is hyperactivity in ADHD?
Excessive movement; hard to sit still; lots of fidgeting
184
What is “repression” according to Freud?
The mind pushes early memories away to protect us
184
What is the “absence of language abilities” explanation?
Babies store memories in a nonverbal way that can’t be translated later
185
Why can’t early memories be retrieved easily?
Early memories were coded without language, but adults retrieve memories using language
185
What is the “sense of self” explanation for infantile amnesia?
Infants don’t have a developed sense of “me,” so experiences aren’t stored as personal memories
186
What is the “immaturity of the memory system” explanation for infantile amnesia?
Babies’ brains and memory systems are still developing
186
Why does lack of sense of self cause memory problems?
Without a clear “self,” events aren’t encoded as autobiographical memories
187
How does brain immaturity affect encoding?
Early experiences aren’t encoded strongly because the brain isn’t developed enough
188
What brain structure is still immature in infants, affecting memory?
The hippocampus—important for forming long-term memories
189
What is inattention in ADHD?
Trouble focusing, getting distracted, not finishing tasks
190
What kinds of difficulties can ADHD cause?
Problems at school and in social situations
191
What is impulsivity in ADHD?
Acting without thinking; trouble waiting; poor control of responses
192
How do ADHD medications help?
They calm/slow the nervous system to improve focus
192
What concerns exist about long-term use of psychostimulants for ADHD?
Long-term effects and side effects of stimulant medications are questioned and not fully understood
193
What is the controversy around ADHD being over-diagnosed?
Some people argue ADHD is diagnosed too often, especially in young children1
194
What part of the brain is responsible for planning, controlling impulses, and evaluating consequences?
The frontal lobe
195
Why do kids and teens make poorer decisions than adults?
Their frontal lobe is still immature
196
What does an immature frontal lobe lead to?
More impulsive and risky decisions
197
Name three functions of the frontal lobe
Planning, impulse control, and evaluating consequences
197
What does Canadian law usually say about crimes committed under age 18?
Young offenders are considered less culpable because of immaturity.
197
What improves decision making in adulthood?
Full development of the frontal lobe
198
What issue is Canada’s Supreme Court considering in this case?
Whether minors can be sentenced as adults for serious crimes
199
Who are I.M. and S.B.?
Two young men convicted of murders they committed as minors (ages 17 and 16)
199
Why could this ruling be important internationally?
It might reshape youth sentencing in Canada and influence other western countries
200
What were I.M. and S.B. convicted of?
First-degree murder
201
what were their sentences?
Life sentences as adults, with no parole for 10 years
202
When can minors be treated as adults under Canadian law?
When prosecutors argue their actions justify adult sentencing
Child Development 2040
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