1
Q
what do humans prioritze ?
A
Humans prioritize vision more than any other sense — it gets the most attention and focus in both daily life and research
2
Q
What are the three main sensory areas studied in perceptual development?
A
- vision
- hearing
- other senses
3
Q
Which sense gets the most focus in research and daily life?
A
vision
4
Q
Why does vision get the most attention in sensory development?
A
Because people rely on it the most — we tend to prioritize what we see over what we hear or feel
5
Q
Define sensory development
A
The maturation of the senses (vision, hearing, taste, touch, smell) and how they begin to function and integrate
6
Q
What does “bias toward vision” mean?
A
It means humans are naturally more focused on visual information compared to other sensory input
7
Q
What are “other senses” besides vision and hearing?
A
Touch, taste, smell, balance, and proprioception (body position awareness)
8
Q
Define perceptual development.
A
The process by which infants and children learn to interpret and organize sensory input from the environment
9
Q
when does vision develop in comparison to other senses ?
A
Vision develops later than other senses and improves gradually in infancy as the brain and eyes connect more efficiently
10
Q
Which sense is the last to fully develop in infants?
A
Vision
11
Q
What do infants initially see after birth?
A
Their vision is blurry; they can only detect large shapes and strong contrasts
12
Q
What is visual acuity?
A
The sharpness or clarity of vision
13
Q
what kind of acuity do babies have at birth ?
A
Babies have low acuity at birth, which improves as they age
14
Q
What is depth perception?
A
The ability to perceive distance and three-dimensional space
15
Q
how does depth perception evolve over time ?
A
It develops over time as infants gain visual experience
16
Q
what is the last sense to mature?
A
vision
17
Q
How does visual development progress in infancy?
A
Visual skills mature slowly as the brain and eyes form stronger neural connections
18
Q
Why does vision “lag behind” other senses at birth?
A
The visual system (especially the brain areas processing vision) takes longer to mature compared to other sensory systems
19
Q
FILL IN THE BLANK
Babies’ vision starts _______ but _______ with experience
A
blurry, improves
20
Q
Define visual development
A
The process through which infants’ eyes and brain connections mature, improving focus, acuity, and depth perception
21
Q
FILL IN THE BLANK
_______ is dominant in humans, we rely on it most
A
Vision
22
Q
what gradually improves as visual pathways strengthen ?
A
acuity and depth perception
23
Q
what functions at birth vs needs postnatal experience to fully mature ?
A
hearing and balance function before birth, while others; like vision need postnatal experience to fully mature
24
Q
TRUE OR FALSE
The brain–eye connection develops slowly, influencing how infants interpret what they see
A
TRUE
25
TRUE OR FALSE
Different sensory systems develop at different times
TRUE
26
since vision takes time to mature, what do infants depend more on?
hearing and touch early on
27
Why can’t vision develop before birth?
Because the womb is dark — visual stimulation (light) is needed for the visual system to mature
28
Which sense develops after birth?
Vision — babies need light and visual input to grow and refine this sense
29
What sensory systems develop early to help with movement and orientation?
The vestibular (balance) and cutaneous (touch) systems
30
Which sense works before birth?
Hearing — babies can hear sounds (like their mother’s voice and heartbeat) while still in the womb
31
What is the vestibular system responsible for?
Balance, coordination, and spatial orientation
32
What is the cutaneous system responsible for?
Touch sensitivity — it starts around the mouth area and spreads to the rest of the body
33
Why is early sensory development important?
It helps infants adapt to their environment, move effectively, and begin learning through sensory experiences
34
TRUE OR FALSE
Babies recognize familiar voices after birth
TRUE
35
what helps infants orient themselves and control head movements early on?
vestibular (balance)
36
what is another word for touch ?
cutaneous
37
what is the first sense to develop, begins around the mouth and spreads to the rest of the body...
touch
38
what is the order of sensory development ?
1. Touch (first)
2. Vestibular (balance/movement)
3. Hearing (before birth)
4. Smell & taste (before birth)
5. Vision (last, develops after birth)
39
What does “20/20 vision” mean?
It means you can clearly read line 8 on the eye chart — what a person with normal vision can see from 20 feet away
40
How do doctors test vision in newborns (since they can’t read an eye chart)?
By observing reactions — like following a light or face, checking eye alignment, pupil response, and whether both eyes track together
41
What tools might be used to test newborn vision?
A light or moving object to see if the baby looks toward or blinks at it
42
Describe adult vision.
- Clear, sharp vision at all distances
- Full colour vision and good depth perception
- Eyes and brain work together efficiently to process details and movement
43
Describe newborn vision
- Blurry and not fully developed
- Can see only 8–12 inches away (around parent’s face distance)
- See mostly black, white, and gray (colour vision develops later)
- Poor depth perception and can’t focus well
44
Define depth perception
The ability to judge distance and see the world in three dimensions
45
What does an eye chart measure?
Visual acuity — how clearly someone can see fine details from a standard distance (usually 20 feet)
46
How does the preferential looking test work?
babies are shown two photos (one plain, one interesting). If they look longer at one, it means they can see it and have a preference for that image
47
Define visual acuity
The clarity or sharpness of vision; the ability to see fine detail
48
How does testing differ between infants and adults?
- Infants: Observational methods (light tracking, eye movements)
- Adults: Formal vision tests (eye charts, colour and depth tests)
49
what is the vision testing goal ?
Measure how well eyes focus, track, and perceive detail
50
as infants grow.... what overall improves ?
As infants grow, acuity, colour vision, and depth perception all improve.
51
Why can adults have more detailed and precise vision tests?
Because they can follow instructions, allowing measurement of different aspects like acuity, colour vision, depth, and peripheral vision
52
describe adult vision:
Vision is fully developed and integrated with cognitive processing
53
describe newborn vision:
Vision is functional but immature; brain-eye coordination still developing
54
What is the preferential looking technique?
A research method used to test what babies can see or recognize by showing them two images and observing which one they look at longer
55
What does looking longer at one image indicate?
That the baby notices, recognizes, or prefers that image — showing they can perceive differences between the two
56
What kind of information can this test reveal about infants?
It shows what visual details or patterns infants can detect and how early visual recognition and attention develop
57
What example is shown on the slide?
A baby is compared with a chimp holding a doll — infants would look longer at the photo with more features or interest (the monkey and baby photo) than at a plain gray square
58
Why is the preferential looking method useful in infant research?
Because infants can’t communicate verbally, this test helps researchers measure vision, interest, and recognition through looking behavior
59
define Preferential Looking:
A method that measures which of two visual stimuli an infant looks at longer to determine what they can see, notice, or prefer
60
define visual prefernce :
The tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one stimulus over another, revealing early perceptual abilities
61
what is the purpose of preferential looking :
To assess what infants can visually perceive and recognize
62
what is the method of preferential looking :
Show two stimuli (one simple, one complex)
63
what is the result of preferential looking :
Longer gaze = visual preference or recognition
64
what is the significance of preferential looking :
Indicates vision clarity, pattern recognition, and early cognitive awareness
65
what do infants often prefer ?
Infants often prefer faces, contrast, and movement over plain or simple images
66
What is the goal of the preferential looking test?
To determine what infants can see and whether they can tell the difference between two images
67
Which image do babies usually look at longer — a patterned one or a plain one?
Babies look longer at patterned images (like stripes) because they are more visually interesting
68
What does it mean if a baby looks longer at one image?
It means they can see the difference and prefer the more stimulating pattern
69
What does an eye tracker measure in these studies?
it measures where infants look and how long they look at each image — showing visual preference and attention
70
Why do researchers use patterns like stripes?
Because stripes test contrast sensitivity — babies who can see the stripes clearly will look longer at them, showing their developing visual acuity
71
What does “looking longer” tell researchers?
That the baby’s visual system can detect differences, process patterns, and focus attention — evidence of growing visual perception
72
What is the main conclusion from preferential looking studies?
Infants are not passive — they actively prefer visual complexity and learn through what catches their attention
73
define Eye Tracking :
A tool that records eye movements to determine where and how long a person looks — helps measure attention and visual discrimination
74
what do babies prefer to look for ?
Babies prefer patterns (like stripes or faces) over plain fields
75
what does looking longer mean ?
Looking longer means they can see, discriminate, and prefer one stimulus
76
what does eye-tracking technology do ?
eye-tracking technology makes these studies more accurate by measuring exact gaze direction and duration
77
what does eye-tracking technology provide insight on ?
This method provides insight into visual acuity, pattern recognition, and attention in early development
78
What does Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) test?
It tests how the brain responds to visual signals — showing whether the brain is reacting properly to what the baby sees
79
How does the VEP test work?
Electrodes are placed on the baby’s scalp to record the brain’s electrical activity while they look at visual stimuli (like patterns or flashing lights)
80
What does the VEP measure?
The electrical signals generated by the brain when it processes visual input
81
Is the VEP test painful or invasive?
No — it’s non-invasive and painless. Electrodes just sit on the scalp to record activity
82
What does a normal VEP result indicate?
That the baby’s visual system and brain are responding correctly to what they see
83
Why is VEP used in infant research?
Because babies can’t describe what they see — VEP objectively shows if and how their brains process visual information
84
What are some limitations of the VEP test?
It’s not very specific — it tells you that the brain is responding, but not exactly how well the baby is seeing or what they perceive
85
define Visual Evoked Potential (VEP):
A test that measures brain responses to visual stimuli by recording electrical activity through electrodes on the scalp
86
define electrode :
A small sensor that detects and records electrical signals from the brain or muscles
87
define non-invasive :
Means no penetration or pain — electrodes are placed on top of the scalp, not inside the body
88
what is the purpose of VEP :
To check if the baby’s visual cortex responds to visual input
89
how does VEP work ?
Baby watches an image → electrodes record brain activity → signals show brain response
90
what does VEP help confirm ?
Helps confirm that the eyes → optic nerve → brain communication pathway is functioning
91
what are pros of VEP :
Objective, painless, reliable for infants
92
what are cons of VEP :
Not detailed — can’t tell how well the baby sees, only if the brain is responding
93
What is visual acuity?
The clarity or sharpness of vision, or how well fine details can be seen
94
What is a newborn’s approximate visual acuity at birth?
about 20/600 — meaning their vision is very blurry; they can only see objects clearly that are very close (roughly arm’s length)
95
What does 20/600 vision mean?
What an adult with normal vision can see from 600 feet, a newborn must be 20 feet away to see — showing very poor clarity
96
How does a 6-month-old’s visual acuity compare?
Around 20/100 — much clearer vision, showing rapid development in the first half-year
97
By what age is a baby’s visual acuity nearly adult-like?
By about 12 months (1 year) — close to 20/20 vision, similar to adults
98
What drives the improvement in visual acuity during infancy?
The maturation of the retina and visual cortex, and stronger brain–eye connections that process detail more efficiently
99
define Visual Acuity:
The ability to distinguish fine details or differences in an image
100
define 20/20 vision :
Normal adult-level vision clarity
101
define Retinal Development:
The process by which the retina (light-sensitive tissue in the eye) matures, improving focus and sharpness
102
at birth what is your eye level ?
20/600 → very blurry; can only see faces at close range
103
at 6 months what is your eye level ?
20/100 → improving; babies can recognize familiar people from farther away
104
at 12 months what is your eye level ?
20/20 → nearly adult-level acuity
105
TRUE OR FALSE
Vision improves rapidly in the first year due to neural and visual system growth.
TRUE
106
TRUE OR FALSE
Acuity testing helps track normal sensory development and detect possible visual delays early.
TRUE
107
Why is visual acuity so poor in newborns?
Because their visual system is still immature, especially the eye muscles and light receptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina
108
Is poor acuity in newborns caused by problems with the optics (hardware) of the eye?
No — parts like the cornea and lens are mostly developed and not the main issue
109
What role do eye muscles play in newborn vision?
Their eye muscles aren’t fully developed, so babies can’t focus (accommodate) well or control eye movements precisely
110
What is accommodation?
The ability of the eye to adjust focus for near or far objects — weak in newborns because their eye muscles are still developing
111
How do rods and cones contribute to poor acuity?
Rods and cones (the retina’s light-sensitive cells) are underdeveloped, limiting sharpness, colour vision, and detail perception
112
Which factor is the major limiting factor in newborn visual acuity?
The undeveloped rods and cones — they are the main reason newborn vision is blurry
113
define optics :
The physical structures of the eye (cornea, lens, pupil) that bend and focus light
114
define rods :
Retinal cells sensitive to light and movement (for night and peripheral vision)
115
define cones :
Retinal cells that detect colour and fine detail (for daylight vision)
116
at what point in age = "Eye parts are formed but not fine-tuned"
at birth
117
in muscles, what does poor focusing ability =
reduced clarity
118
what is the main cause of lower vision ?
Main cause — still maturing, limiting detail and colour perception
119
TRUE OR FALSE
Vision improves as the retina, brain connections, and eye muscles mature through the first year
TRUE
120
Is poor visual acuity in newborns caused by problems with the optics (hardware) of the eye?
No. The eye’s structures (cornea, lens, pupil) are mostly developed and function normally — not the main issue
121
Is poor acuity due to undeveloped eye muscles or accommodation problems?
Kind of. The eye muscles are still weak, so babies can’t focus (accommodate) well on near or far objects
122
Is poor acuity mainly caused by undeveloped rods and cones?
Yes! Especially undeveloped cones, which are responsible for fine detail and colour vision
123
What are cones responsible for?
Detecting colour and fine detail — these develop later in infancy
124
What are rods responsible for?
Detecting light and motion — these are more functional at birth but still immature
125
Which part of the eye is most responsible for newborns’ blurry vision?
The immature retina, particularly the underdeveloped cones in the fovea (the sharp-vision area)
126
Newborns’ poor vision is mainly due to....
undeveloped cones in the retina, not issues with eye structure
127
TRUE OR FALSE
a newborns ability to focus and process detail improves rapidly during the first year
TRUE
128
Are optics (hardware of the eye) a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
❌ No.
The cornea, lens, and pupil are mostly developed and function well at birth — so the “hardware” isn’t the problem.
129
Is accommodation or undeveloped eye muscles a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
⚠️ Kind of.
Eye muscles are weak, so babies can’t focus well on near or far objects, but this only partially explains their poor vision
130
Are undeveloped rods and cones a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
✅ Yes.
Especially undeveloped cones (responsible for detail and colour) — this is the main reason newborn vision is blurry
131
What is the retina?
The back of the eye where rods and cones (light-sensitive cells) are located; converts light into electrical signals for the brain
132
What are rods?
Photoreceptor cells that detect light and dark, work well in dim lighting, but do not see colour and are poor with detail
133
What are cones?
Photoreceptor cells that detect colour and fine detail; work best in bright light and are concentrated in the fovea (center of the retina)
134
What is the fovea?
The central part of the retina with the highest concentration of cones, responsible for sharpest, most detailed vision
135
What is the optic nerve?
The bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain for processing
136
What is the blind spot?
The area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye — contains no rods or cones, so no image is detected there
137
What is the cornea?
The clear, outer covering of the eye that bends (refracts) light to help focus it on the retina
138
What is the lens (or crystalline lens)?
the part of the eye that changes shape to focus light on the retina — helps with accommodation (near/far focus)
139
What is the pupil?
The opening in the center of the iris that controls how much light enters the eye
140
What is the iris?
The coloured part of the eye that adjusts pupil size to regulate light intake
141
what term is defined as : "Detect light & dark; no colour; good in low light"
rods
142
what term is defined as : "Detect colour & detail; need bright light"
cones
143
what term is defined as : "Center of retina; sharp vision; many cones"
fovea
144
what term is defined as : "Light-sensitive layer with rods & cones"
retina
145
what term is defined as : "Focus light onto retina"
cornea/lens
146
what term is defined as : "Sends visual info to brain"
optic nerve
147
what term is defined as : "Area without rods or cones"
blind spot
148
what term is defined as : "control light entering eye"
iris/pupil
149
What are rods responsible for?
Seeing light and dark (no colour); they work well in dim light and help with night vision
150
Are rods sensitive to light?
✅ Yes, rods are very sensitive to low light levels — they allow vision in the dark
151
Are rods chromatic (colour-sensitive) or achromatic?
❌ Achromatic — they detect brightness only (no colour).
152
Where are rods located in the retina?
In the periphery (outer edges) of the retina.
153
Do rods help with fine detail vision?
❌ No, they are poor with detail, but great for detecting motion and shadows.
154
What are cones responsible for?
Seeing colour and fine details in bright light
155
Are cones sensitive to light?
⚠️ Less sensitive — they require bright light to function well
156
Where are cones concentrated?
In the fovea, the central part of the retina that gives sharp, detailed vision
156
Are cones chromatic or achromatic?
Chromatic — they detect colour (red, green, blue types)
157
Which cells develop later in infants — rods or cones?
Cones develop later, which is why newborns can’t see colour or detail clearly at first
158
What does chromatic mean?
Colour-sensitive — detects different wavelengths of light (e.g., cones)
159
Which photoreceptor is chromatic?
Cones — they respond to colour (red, green, blue) and work best in bright
160
What does achromatic mean?
Without colour — only detects light and dark (black and white) (brightness)
161
Which photoreceptor is achromatic?
Rods — they sense light intensity but not colour; used in dim lighting
162
the following characteristics define what ? :
- Sensitive to light
- Achromatic
- Concentrated in periphery of
retina
rods
163
the following characteristics define what ? :
- Less sensitive to light
- Chromatic (colour)
- Sensitive to details
-Concentrated in fovea of retina
cones
164
Are rods in newborns sensitive to fine detail?
❌ No.
Newborn rods are not sensitive to fine detail — they are short and thick instead of long and skinny, making them less precise
165
Why aren’t rods in newborns good with detail?
Because their structure is immature, so they don’t capture visual information as sharply as adult rods
166
What does it mean that cones are immaturely shaped in newborns?
Cones are still developing — they’re not yet the correct shape for high-resolution colour and detail vision
167
What does it mean that cones are immaturely distributed?
Cones are not yet densely packed in the fovea (center of the retina). It takes about a year for them to move into their proper positions and reach adult-like organization.
168
Why is newborn vision blurry and lacking in colour?
Because both rods and cones are underdeveloped in shape and distribution, especially cones, which handle fine detail and colour
169
How long does it take for cones to fully organize and mature?
About 12 months (1 year) after birth
170
define immaturely shaped :
Not yet developed into adult form; shorter, thicker, less efficient
171
define immaturely-distributed :
Not yet located in their proper retinal positions (especially in the fovea)
172
what is the Central part of retina responsible for detailed, colour vision; takes time to mature in infants ?
fovea
172
Is the optics (hardware) of the eye a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
❌ No.
The eye’s physical structures (cornea, lens, pupil) are mostly developed and function normally — not the main issue
173
Is accommodation or undeveloped eye muscles a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
⚠️ Kind of.
Eye muscles are somewhat underdeveloped, so babies can’t focus well (especially on near objects), but this only has a minor effect
174
Are undeveloped rods and cones a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
✅ Yes.
This is a major reason — especially undeveloped cones, which are needed for fine detail and colour vision
174
Is an underdeveloped visual cortex a reason for poor acuity in newborns?
✅ Yes.
The brain’s visual processing areas aren’t fully developed yet, so even if the eyes receive images, the brain can’t process them clearly
175
Who were Hubel & Wiesel?
Two neuroscientists (one Canadian) who studied visual development using cats to understand how the brain processes vision
176
What did Hubel & Wiesel do in their experiment?
They sewed kittens’ eyelids shut at birth, depriving them of visual input, to study how lack of vision affects brain development
177
What did their findings show about vision development?
That early experience is critical — the brain must receive visual input during infancy to develop healthy vision
177
What part of the brain did they study?
The visual cortex — the area that processes visual information
178
What did Hubel & Wiesel discover?
The visual cortex doesn’t develop normally without early visual experience — showing that vision requires stimulation to form proper neural connections
179
Why was this study important?
It changed what scientists know about visual development, proving that both biology and experience shape how vision develops
180
What happens if visual input is blocked early in life?
The neurons in the visual cortex don’t learn to respond properly to images, leading to permanent vision deficits even after normal vision is restored later
181
what was the method for Hubel & Wiesel's study ?
Sewed eyelids shut → no visual input
182
what did Hubel & Wiesel measure ?
Brain’s visual cortex activity
183
what was Hubel & Wiesel's conclusion ?
Visual development depends on stimulation + experience during a critical period
184
What does the visual cortex do?
It processes visual information from the eyes
184
What happens in a normal visual cortex?
Both eyes send signals → balanced brain activity
185
What happens when one eye is deprived?
The brain favours the open eye → weak or no response from the closed eye
186
What does this show about vision development?
Vision needs early visual input to develop properly
187
What was the main takeaway from the study?
The brain needs stimulation from both eyes early on for normal vision
188
What did Hubel & Wiesel’s study show?
There’s a critical period where early visual experience is needed for normal vision
189
What happens if a kitten is deprived of sight in both eyes early on?
It becomes blind for life
190
What happens if only one eye is shut early on?
The kitten loses vision in that eye only
191
What if sight is lost after the first 3–4 months?
No lasting damage — vision still develops normally
192
What does this prove about vision development?
arly experience is necessary — the brain must get visual input to mature
192
What is a critical period?
A special time when the brain develops certain skills best
193
What happens during a critical period?
Experience and environment have the strongest effect on development
194
When is the critical period for vision?
The first few months of life
195
Why must babies get visual input early?
The brain needs to learn to see — without early input, vision can’t fully develop
196
Can vision be fixed if missed during the critical period?
No. Once missed, it can’t fully develop later
197
What is Strabismus ?
Eyes don’t line up, so the brain may ignore one eye (cross-eyed)
198
Why must strabismus be fixed early?
If not, the brain learns to disregard one side permanently
199
How can strabismus be treated?
With surgery or an eye patch early on
200
What are cataracts?
Clouding of the eye’s lens, causing blurry vision
201
How can cataracts be fixed?
Laser surgery or eye patch—must be done early
202
Why fix these issues early in life?
The critical period—the brain needs normal visual input to learn to see
203
Is visual development nature or nurture?
both
203
What happens in Phase 1 (Nature)?
Genes build the basic wiring of the visual system
204
What happens in Phase 2 (Nurture)?
Experience (seeing) strengthens and refines brain connections
205
Why are both nature and nurture important?
Nature sets up the system; nurture fine-tunes it through experience
206
What did Fantz & Yeh (1979) study?
What infants prefer to look at
207
How do researchers test what babies like to look at?
By measuring how long they look at different images
208
What do newborns prefer to look at?
Patterns over plain images
208
What kinds of visuals do infants like most?
High contrast, larger, and curved shapes
209
What does this show about infants?
Babies are drawn to complex and interesting visuals early on
210
What kind of visuals do infants prefer?
Bold contrasts like black and white
211
Why do newborns prefer high contrast patterns?
They’re easier to see for developing eyes
211
How do high-contrast visuals help babies?
They stimulate visual development and focus
212
What did Fantz (1963) study?
What 2- and 3-month-old infants like to look at.
213
What do infants prefer looking at?
Faces over other shapes
214
What else do babies like?
Patterns and circles more than plain colours
214
Do infants have a colour preference?
No strong colour preference
215
What does this show about babies’ vision?
They like complex, face-like visuals early on
216
What kind of faces do infants prefer?
Upright faces with features in the correct order
217
Do babies need to see real faces?
No — cartoon or simple faces are fine
217
What happens if facial features are rearranged or upside down?
Babies lose interest
218
What does this show?
Babies recognize face structure, not just details
219
What do 1-month-old babies focus on in faces?
The edges of the face (like the hairline and chin)
220
What do 2-month-old babies start focusing on?
Internal features — eyes and mouth
220
What does this change show?
Visual and social development — babies begin recognizing faces better
221
Why is face perception important?
It helps babies connect socially and recognize caregivers
222
What experiment did Gibson & Walk (1960) use?
The Visual Cliff experiment
223
What did babies do in the visual cliff test?
They were placed on glass with one side that looked deep
224
What did most babies do?
Refused to cross the cliff — they sensed danger and depth
225
When does depth perception develop?
Around 6 months of age
226
What did this show?
Babies can perceive depth and understand visual danger
227
At what age was depth perception tested?
6 months old
228
What does this show?
By 6 months, infants can perceive depth and avoid danger
228
How many infants crossed the ‘deep’ side?
Less than 10%
229
What was the main conclusion of the cliff study?
Babies understand depth = danger, showing early visual awareness
230
What ages were tested in Campos (1976)?
2–4 months old
231
What happened to infants’ heart rate over the “cliff”?
It decreased (slowed down)
232
What does a slower heart rate mean?
Babies notice depth but find it interesting, not scary
232
What was the main conclusion?
Infants younger than 6 months see depth as interesting, not dangerous
233
When do babies start to fear depth?
Around 5–6 months, when they start moving on their own
234
What causes babies to become cautious of depth?
Experience with movement — they learn what’s safe vs. dangerous
235
What does the visual clix results show?
Fear of depth develops with experience, not just age
235
What is the second most developed sense at birth?
Hearing
236
Can infants hear at birth?
Yes, they can hear sounds right away
237
What is sound?
Vibrations that travel through air
237
What does auditory development involve?
The brain learning to process and recognize sounds
237
How does hearing change after birth?
It improves quickly with experience
238
What does amplitude mean?
Loudness of a sound
238
What does frequency mean?
it’s how many sound waves happen each second — higher frequency = higher pitch
239
What does duration mean?
How long the sound lasts
239
High frequency →
you hear a high pitch (like a whistle)
240
Low frequency →
you hear a low pitch (like a drum)
241
What is the psychological version of frequency?
Pitch – how high or low a sound is
242
What is the psychological version of amplitude?
Loudness – how strong or soft a sound is
242
What is the physical version of pitch?
Frequency – how fast sound waves vibrate
242
What is the physical version of loudness?
amplitude – how big the sound waves are
243
What is the psychological version of duration?
Length – how long we hear the sound for
243
What is the physical version of length?
Duration – how long the sound lasts
243
Why is hearing important for object identity?
It helps us know what something is (e.g., hearing a dog bark = it’s a dog)
244
Why is hearing important for object location?
It helps us tell where a sound is coming from (e.g., a police siren)
245
Why is hearing important for communication?
It lets us talk and share information with others
245
what does object identity do ?
Helps us know what a sound is.
246
give an exmaple of object identity :
hearing barking = it’s a dog
247
what does object location do ?
Helps us know where a sound is coming from
248
give an exmaple of object location :
hearing a siren = sound coming from the street
248
what does communication do ?
Lets us talk, listen, and share information with others
249
give an exmaple of communication :
understanding speech or conversation
250
Can fetuses hear before birth?
Yes — they can hear sounds in the womb (like their mother’s voice)
251
What did Kisilevsky et al. (2003) find?
Fetuses recognize and prefer their mother’s voice
252
What did DeCasper & Spence (1986) find?
Newborns remember and prefer stories heard in the womb (like Dr. Seuss)
253
What sounds do newborns prefer?
Speech and music — they pay attention to voices and rhythms
253
What is habituation?
When babies get bored of the same sound but notice when it changes
254
How is a baby’s hearing at 3 months old?
Worse than adults’ — they can’t detect small sound differences well yet
254
What is a difference threshold?
The smallest change in sound a baby can notice
254
What does “all thresholds are worse than adults’” mean?
Babies don’t hear as clearly or as accurately as adults
255
What does a lower difference threshold mean?
Better hearing — you can notice smaller sound changes
255
Do babies have higher or lower thresholds than adults?
Higher (they need bigger sound differences to notice a change)
256
Why are babies’ hearing thresholds worse than adults’?
Their auditory system is still developing
257
When does hearing sensitivity improve?
Gradually during the first year of life
258
What is frequency?
How high or low a sound is (pitch)
259
How do infants (5–8 months) compare to adults?
Infants hear higher frequencies better than adults
260
Who hears lower frequencies better?
Adults — they’re more sensitive to low-pitch sounds
261
What does a lower line on the graph mean?
better hearing (more sensitivity)
261
What are frequency-loudness thresholds?
How loud a sound must be for babies to hear it
261
Why is infants’ hearing less accurate overall?
Their auditory system is still developing
262
How do 6-month-olds hear low frequencies (<200 Hz)
orse than adults — need louder sounds to hear
263
How do 6-month-olds hear mid frequencies?
Almost as good as adults
264
What is a duration detection threshold?
The smallest change in sound length you can notice
264
What is the threshold for adults?
10 ms difference — more sensitive to timing changes
264
How do 6-month-olds hear high frequencies (>10,000 Hz)?
Better than adults — more sensitive to high-pitch sounds
265
Overall pattern?
Babies’ hearing is developing — good for high sounds, weaker for low ones.
266
What is the threshold for 6-month-old infants?
20 ms difference — need a bigger change to notice
266
What does this mean about babies’ hearing?
Their hearing is less precise, so they need bigger sound differences to tell them apart
267
What are the 4 parts that affect hearing thresholds?
Outer ear, middle ear, inner ear, auditory cortex
267
What does “threshold” mean?
The smallest sound difference you can notice
268
Outer ear – function?
Grows with age; helps collect sounds (includes ear canal)
269
Middle ear – function?
Sends sound vibrations to the inner ear
270
Inner ear – function?
Turns sound into electrical signals (cochlea)
271
Auditory cortex – function?
Brain area that interprets sound information
272
Why do adults hear low pitches better?
Their longer ear canal improves low-frequency hearing
273
Does the outer ear affect hearing thresholds?
Yes — it grows and changes shape with age
273
Does the middle ear affect hearing thresholds?
No — not a major factor
274
Does the auditory cortex affect hearing thresholds?
Yes — it’s the brain’s hearing area that matures over time
274
Does the inner ear affect hearing thresholds?
Yes — becomes more sensitive as it matures
275
What sounds are infants good at hearing?
High frequencies
276
What sounds are infants okay at hearing?
Mid frequencies
277
What sounds are infants bad at hearing?
Low frequencies
277
How are infants at hearing different sound lengths?
They’re okay, can tell short vs. long sounds
278
What is the special way adults talk to babies called?
Motherese” or infant-directed speech
279
What are features of motherese?
Higher pitch, slower speech, exaggerated tone, and repetition
279
Why do adults use motherese?
Helps babies pay attention, recognize sounds, and learn language
280
What does motherese include?
Simple words, clear pronunciation, and lots of repetition
281
Do all cultures use motherese?
Yes — it’s seen across many backgrounds and languages
281
What is Infant-Directed (ID) speech?
The special way adults instinctively talk to babies — slower, higher-pitched, and more emotional
282
how is ID speech different from Adult-Directed (AD) speech in pitch?
Higher pitch and greater pitch range
283
What is the tone of ID speech?
- Loving
- gentle
- encouraging
283
How is ID speech different in duration?
- Slower tempo
- longer vowels (“ooooo”) - shorter sentences
284
Is ID speech more or less repetitive than adult speech?
More repetitive — helps babies learn and recognize words
284
How does ID speech communicate emotion?
Through warmth, affection, and tone of voice
285
What is AD (Adult-Directed) speech?
How adults talk to other adults
285
What is ID (Infant-Directed) speech?
How adults talk to babies — also called “motherese"
286
What are key features of ID speech?
Higher pitch, slower pace, exaggerated tone, simple words, and repetition
287
Why is ID speech helpful?
Helps babies pay attention and learn language
287
What are key features of AD speech?
- normal tone
- faster pace
- complex words/sentences.
288
What is one main function of ID speech?
It attracts the baby’s attention — babies focus on the exaggerated tone
289
How does ID speech help language learning?
It helps babies notice and learn individual speech sounds
290
Why is ID speech important overall?
It helps babies pay attention, feel cared for, and start learning to talk
290
What does it mean that ID speech “communicates affect”?
It expresses warmth, love, and emotion through the caregiver’s voice tone
291
How does communicating affect help infants?
It helps babies feel emotionally connected and safe, supporting bonding
292
How does ID speech facilitate language development?
It helps babies notice and learn individual speech sounds
293
Why is ID speech useful for learning speech sounds?
The slow, exaggerated pronunciation makes it easier for babies to hear and imitate words
294
What are smell and taste classified as?
They are chemosensory systems — they detect chemicals in air (smell) or liquid (taste)
295
Can smell and taste be separated?
No — they are closely tied together and work as one system
296
when do smell and taste start functioning?
They are functional before birth, as early as 11 weeks after conception
296
How do babies experience smell and taste before birth?
Amniotic fluid carries smells and tastes from the mother’s diet
297
What can newborns recognize after birth?
Babies can recognize their mother’s smell and distinguish it from others
297
Why can babies smell what their mothers eat?
Because the amniotic fluid absorbs flavors and scents from the mother’s food
298
Is newborn smell ability learned or innate?
It’s both nature and nurture — partly built-in, but also shaped by smells before birth
299
Why is this ability important?
It helps with bonding and feeding — babies can find their mother’s breast
299
What can newborns do regarding smell?
They can tell their mother’s scent apart from other women or no-odor controls
300
What does newborn olfaction show about their senses?
Newborns are born with a strong sense of smell and early recognition ability
300
How does early smell recognition develop?
Babies learn their mom’s scent from exposure in the womb and after birth
301
TRUE OR FALSE
newborns already have a strong sense of smell
TRUE
302
TRUE OR FALSE
infants can tell their mom's scent apart from other's
TRUE
302
TRUE OR FALSE
sents helps with bonding and feeding (finding the mother's breast)
TRUE
303
What can newborns recognize using smell?
Their mother’s scent — they can tell it apart from other women or no-odor controls
304
Why is recognizing their mother’s smell important?
It helps with bonding and feeding, letting babies find their mother’s breast
305
Is the newborn’s sense of smell innate or learned?
Both — it’s partly innate but also shaped by prenatal experiences (what they smelled before birth)
305
What does this early smell ability show?
Newborns are born with a strong sense of smell and early recognition skills
306
What supports the idea that smell discrimination is learned (experience)?
Bottle-fed infants don’t recognize their mother’s smell like breastfed infants do
307
Do newborns recognize their father’s scent?
No — they don’t show discrimination for the father’s smell
308
What supports the idea that smell ability is innate (born with it)?
Even bottle-fed infants prefer the smell of lactating women over non-lactating or no-odor controls
309
How do newborns react to bitter tastes?
They have strong negative reactions — often grimacing or spitting
309
What does the evidence suggest overall (about nature vs nurture - olfactory discrimination)?
Both nature and nurture — babies are born with smell ability, but experience (like breastfeeding) strengthens it.
309
Can newborns react to different tastes?
Yes — they show distinct facial expressions for different tastes
310
How do newborns react to sweet tastes?
They smile or relax, showing they like sweet flavors (same as adults)
310
What is the innate component of taste?
Babies are born liking sweet tastes and disliking bitter ones — this is evolutionary and adaptive
311
How do newborns react to sour tastes?
They make a “lip pucker” face — they find it unpleasant
312
Why is studying newborn taste important?
It shows early sensory development and how taste influences feeding behavior and survival
313
What does this show about newborn taste?
Taste preferences are innate — babies are born liking sweet and rejecting bitter
314
What do newborns’ reactions to sour and bitter tastes show?
They can differentiate between tastes and instinctively avoid potentially harmful foods (bitter often means toxic)
314
Why do newborns prefer sweet tastes?
Sweet tastes release calming effects and are linked to breast milk, which is naturally sweet
314
When do newborn taste preferences develop?
Taste preferences are present at birth — they’re innate, not learned
315
Why do babies prefer sweet and avoid bitter?
- Sweet = safe and energy-rich
- Bitter = possible toxin or harmful (helps survival)
315
How do scientists measure newborn taste preferences?
Through facial expressions — smiling for sweet, grimacing or spitting for sour/bitter
316
How does breastfeeding affect taste?
Breast milk carries the mom’s diet flavors, so babies get used to those tastes early (e.g., garlic, carrot, vanilla)
316
What are cognitive factors in taste?
They are mental and learning-based influences that shape what we like or dislike through experience
317
What are pre- and post-natal taste effects?
Babies can taste flavors before birth (through amniotic fluid) and after birth (through breast milk)
318
What are cognitive factors in taste?
We can learn to like new tastes (like coffee or beer) after repeated exposure — experience shapes preference
318
Can taste preferences change?
Yes — experience and culture can alter what we think tastes good, even if we didn’t like it at first
319
How can experience change taste preference?
With repeated exposure, people can learn to enjoy foods they once disliked (e.g., coffee, beer)
320
What is an example of a learned taste preference?
Bitter drinks like coffee or beer — people may dislike them at first but enjoy them after multiple tries
321
What does this show about taste development?
Taste isn’t only biological — it’s also shaped by environment, experience, and learning
321
How does culture affect taste preferences?
Different cultures teach people to value and enjoy certain flavors that others might find strange
322
What did Davis (1928, 1934, 1939) study show?
Infants naturally chose well-balanced diets when given a variety of foods to pick from
323
How did infants show food preference?
They reached for and indicated foods they wanted without encouragement
324
What does the study suggest about infants’ instincts?
Babies can instinctively choose foods that meet their nutritional needs
325
What health issue was relevant to this study?
ome children had rickets, but still selected foods that helped improve their condition naturally
326
what is rickets ?
weak bones from vitamin D deficiency
327
What is the key takeaway from Davis’ findings?
Even without guidance, infants show an innate ability to regulate nutrition and choose what’s best for them
328
What is the first sense to develop in humans?
Touch is the first sense to emerge
329
when is touch sense developed ?
around 6 weeks after conception
330
Where does touch perception begin developing?
It starts in the lips and nose area before spreading to the rest of the body
331
By what week of gestation can almost the whole body feel touch?
By the 12th week, nearly the entire body surface is sensitive to touch
331
Why is touch development important before birth?
It helps babies respond to the environment in the womb and begin sensory processing early
331
How early can touch sensations start?
As early as 6 weeks after conception, touch sensations begin forming
332
What do we now know about infant pain?
Babies can feel pain because their somatosensory cortex (area that senses touch and pain) is active before birth
332
What was historically believed about infant pain?
People once thought infants didn’t feel pain strongly, so little was done to relieve it (e.g., no pain meds during procedures)
333
What is the somatosensory cortex responsible for?
It’s the part of the brain that processes touch and pain sensations
333
Why is this information important for medical care?
It shows that infants need pain relief during medical procedures — they truly experience pain
333
How do infants experience pain compared to adults?
Infants feel pain similarly to adults, even though they can’t verbalize it
334
Do infants have conscious memory of early pain experiences?
No — infants don’t consciously remember early pain, but it can still have long-term effects
335
What evidence suggests early pain might have lasting impacts?
Anecdotal reports show that early pain (like neonatal procedures) can lead to later psychological or emotional issues
336
How can early pain affect infants later in life?
Babies who experience pain early on may become more sensitive to pain later in life
337
what is an example of early pain possibly having long-lasting effects?
Circumcised boys may show increased pain sensitivity later — showing that early pain experiences can leave lasting traces
Child Development 2040
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