1
Q
What does hereditary transmission mean?
A
How traits are passed from parents to children
2
Q
What does Chapter 3 of Biological Beginnings focus on?
A
Basic principles of hereditary transmission and problems with genes/chromosomes.
2
Q
What happens when genes or chromosomes develop abnormally?
A
It can lead to genetic problems
3
Q
What is the process by which traits are passed from one generation to the next?
A
Hereditary transmission
3
Q
Why is it important to study hereditary transmission?
A
To understand how traits are inherited and how genetic problems can occur
3
Q
What does hereditary mean?
A
Passed down from parents to children through genes
4
Q
What is a genotype?
A
Your genetic makeup (your DNA)
5
Q
What is a phenotype?
A
The physical traits shown
6
Q
What are genes?
A
Units of heredity that carry instructions for traits
7
Q
What are chromosomes?
A
Structures in cells that hold many genes
7
Q
How many chromosomes do most humans have?
A
46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs
7
Q
What’s the difference between genotype and phenotype?
A
Genotype is the DNA you have; phenotype is how that DNA is expressed in traits
8
Q
What part of the cell holds genetic material?
A
The nucleus
8
Q
What does DNA carry?
A
Genes that pass traits from parents to children
9
Q
What is inside the nucleus?
A
Chromosomes (tightly coiled DNA)
10
Q
What is the flow of hereditary transmission?
A
Cell → Nucleus → Chromosome → DNA → Genes
11
Q
How many chromosomes do most human cells have?
A
6 chromosomes (23 pairs)
12
Q
What do genes do?
A
Direct how the cells grow and function
13
Q
What are autosomes?
A
Chromosome pairs 1–22 (non-sex chromosomes).
14
Q
What are sex chromosomes?
A
The 23rd pair (X and Y)
15
Q
What is the female karyotype?
A
XX
16
Q
What is the male karyotype?
A
XY
17
Q
Which chromosome combination determines male?
A
X and Y
18
Q
What is mitosis?
A
Cell division
19
What happens to DNA during mitosis?
DNA copies itself (DNA replication)
20
How many new cells are formed in mitosis?
2 new cells
21
Are the new cells genetically the same or different from the original?
Genetically identical
22
What is the purpose of mitosis?
Growth, repair, and replacing old cells
23
FILL IN THE BLANK
In mitosis, a cell divides into ___ genetically identical cells
2
24
What is meiosis?
Cell division that produces sperm and eggs (ova)
25
How many cell divisions occur in meiosis?
Two divisions
26
FILL IN THE BLANK
Meiosis produces ___ cells that are genetically ___ from the parent cell
4; different
26
How many cells are produced in meiosis, and how many chromosomes do they have?
Four cells, each with half the usual chromosomes (23)
27
Why is meiosis important for genetic uniqueness?
It explains why every person is genetically different
27
What special process happens in meiosis that creates genetic variety?
Recombination (mixing DNA)
28
What are monozygotic twins also called?
Identical twins
29
How are monozygotic (identical) twins formed?
From one sperm and one egg that split into two
30
How common are identical twins?
About 1 in 250 births worldwide
30
What are dizygotic twins also called?
Fraternal twins
30
Do identical twins have the same genes?
Yes, they share identical genes
31
How are dizygotic (fraternal) twins formed?
From two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm
32
How common are fraternal twins?
About 1 in 125 births worldwide
33
Do fraternal twins share the same amount of genes as regular siblings
Yes
34
in which kinds of twins does one sperm and one egg split into two ?
Monozygotic (identical) twins
35
in which kinds of twins does two serperate eggs fertilized by two sperm?
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins
36
in which kinds of twins do they have same genes/ look alike ?
Monozygotic (identical) twins
37
What do twin studies compare to measure genetic influence?
Identical twins vs. fraternal twins reared together
37
in which kinds of twins are genes like with regular siblings / look different?
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins
38
What do identical vs. fraternal twins raised together show?
The influence of genetics (since they share the same environment)
38
What do identical twins reared apart show?
The effects of environment vs. genes
39
Why are identical twins reared apart useful for research?
They share the same genes but grow up in different environments, showing environmental effects
40
FILL IN THE BLANK
Identical twins reared ___ show the influence of environment on development
apart
41
identical vs fraternal twins raised together show ...
genetic influence
42
identical twins raised apart show ...
effects of environment vs genes
43
Why is Three Identical Strangers important for behavior genetics?
It shows how environment influences people who share identical genes
44
What is Three Identical Strangers about?
Identical triplets separated at birth and raised in different families
45
What debate does Three Identical Strangers highlight?
Nature vs. nurture — the role of genetics vs. environment
46
FILL IN THE BLANK
The story of Three Identical Strangers demonstrates that identical siblings can have ___ ____ ______ but still grow up ___ due to environment
The same genes; differently
47
What happened in The Mixed-Up Brothers of Bogotá case?
Two pairs of Colombian identical twins were accidentally switched at birth and raised as two sets of fraternal twins
47
Why is the Bogotá brothers’ story important for genetics research?
It shows how environment vs. biology shapes development when identical twins are raised apart
48
What does this case illustrate about nature vs. nurture?
That both genes (nature) and environment (nurture) strongly affect identity and personality
49
FILL IN THE BLANK
The Bogotá brothers’ case involved two pairs of ___ twins raised as ___ twins.
identical; fraternal
50
What do twin studies help researchers measure?
The influence of genetics vs. environment
51
What do adoption studies compare?
Whether children resemble their biological parents (genetics) or adoptive parents (environment)
51
If a child is more like their biological parents, what does that show?
Genetic influence
52
If a child is more like their adoptive parents, what does that show?
Environmental influence
53
FILL IN THE BLANK
Adoption studies help separate the effects of ___ from ___
Genetics; environment.
54
what are some examples of twin studies ?
- identical twins vs. fraternal twins reared together
- identical twins reared apart
55
what are some examples of adoption studies ?
- children more like adoptive parents
(environmental influence) or biological
parents (genetic influence)
56
What is a shared environment?
Experiences family members have in common (e.g., same home, same parents)
57
What is a nonshared environment?
Unique experiences (e.g., different friends, hobbies)
57
What are heredity-environment correlations?
How genes and environment interact to shape behavior
58
What is a passive genotype-environment correlation?
Parents provide both genes and environment (e.g., musical parents give a musical home)
59
What is an evocative genotype-environment correlation?
A child’s traits bring out certain responses (e.g., a friendly child gets more social contact)
60
What is an active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlation?
A child chooses environments that match their genes (e.g., a sporty kid joins teams)
61
FILL IN THE BLANK
Kids who are more pleasant tend to get ___ responses from people.
More pleasant
62
does "shared" make children more different or more alike ?
more alike
63
what would nonshared show ?
show differences in their behaviours
64
What is the range of reaction?
The idea that a genotype sets limits on possible traits, but environment determines where within that range the trait appears
65
Who sets the possible limits for traits?
Genotype (genetic makeup)
66
Who determines how a trait is actually expressed within the range?
The environment
66
Give an example of range of reaction
Genes may set a potential height range, but nutrition affects actual height
66
FILL IN THE BLANK
A genotype doesn’t dictate everything, but it can put a ___ on traits
Limit
67
TRUE OR FALSE
your genotype (genetic makeup) sets the possible limits for traits
TRUE
68
TRUE OR FALSE
environment decides where within that range the trait shows
TRUE
69
What does the x-axis represent in the range of reaction graph?
Nutrition quality (poor → good)
69
What does the y-axis represent in the range of reaction graph?
Adult height
70
What does the graph show about genotype and phenotype?
Genes set a possible range (reaction range), but environment (nutrition) determines the outcome within that range
71
Do males, females, and dwarfs all have the same reaction range?
No, each genotype has its own reaction range
72
What happens with better nutrition?
Height increases, but only within the genetic limit
73
FILL IN THE BLANK
Genes set the ___ range, while nutrition decides the ___ outcome
Reaction; actual
74
What is the range of reaction?
The possible range of traits set by your genes, with the environment deciding where within that range the trait is expressed
75
What is canalization?
When genes strongly control traits, keeping them stable even if the environment changes
76
What does canalization show about genes?
Genes can limit the developmental course of certain characteristics
77
Give an example of a canalized trait
Basic abilities like walking or language usually develop in all normal environments
78
FILL IN THE BLANK
Canalization means some traits stay ___ across different environments
Stable
79
What is the female sex chromosome pair?
XX
80
What does the mother always contribute?
An X chromosome
81
What is the male sex chromosome pair?
XY
82
What can the father contribute?
An X or a Y chromosome
82
What determines a baby’s sex?
Whether the father’s sperm provides an X (girl) or Y (boy)
83
What is a dominant allele?
An allele that shows its trait even if only one copy is present (e.g., B)
83
FILL IN THE BLANK
If the sperm contributes an X, the baby will be ___. If it contributes a Y, the baby will be ___
Female; male.
84
What is a recessive allele?
An allele that only shows its trait if two copies are present (e.g., bb)
85
What does homozygous mean?
Having two of the same allele (BB or bb)
86
What does heterozygous mean?
Having two different alleles (Bb)
87
If B = brown eyes and b = blue eyes, what is the genotype for blue eyes?
bb
88
FILL IN THE BLANK
A heterozygous person (Bb) will show the ___ trait.
Dominant (brown eyes)
89
Why is brown eye color dominant?
It has more melanin pigment
90
FILL IN THE BLANK
_____ allele (B) shows its trait even if only one copy is present
dominant
91
FILL IN THE BLANK
_____ allele (b) trait appears only if two copies are present
recessive
92
What does the “blue-green” eye color example show?
Some traits are influenced by multiple genes, not just one dominant/recessive pair
93
What type of inheritance explains blue-green eyes?
Polygenic inheritance
94
what does Polygenic inheritance mean ?
trait controlled by many genes
95
FILL IN THE BLANK
Blue-green eyes are an example of ___ inheritance
Polygenic
95
Why can eye colors vary beyond just brown or blue?
Because multiple genes and amounts of pigment interact to produce different shades.
96
Is dark hair a dominant or recessive trait?
Dominant
97
Is blond hair a dominant or recessive trait?
Recessive
98
Are dimples dominant or recessive?
dominant
98
Is straight hair dominant or recessive?
Recessive
99
Is hemophilia dominant or recessive?
Recessive
100
What trait is associated with tongue curling?
Dominant = tongue curling
Recessive = no tongue curling.
101
What trait is associated with ear wiggling?
Dominant = ear wiggling
Recessive = no ear wiggling
102
Which hand clasp is dominant?
Left over right
103
What does PTC-taster vs. non-taster mean?
- Tasting bitterness = dominant (taster)
- not tasting = recessive (non-taster)
104
what can PTC-taster taste ?
the bitterness
105
is PTC-taster dominant or recessive?
dominant
106
is PTC-nontaster dominant or recessive?
recessive
107
what can PTC-nontaster taste ?
cannot taste bitterness
108
What is incomplete dominance?
When neither allele is completely dominant, and the trait shows a blend
109
What happens in sickle cell anemia with a homozygous genotype (two sickle cell alleles)?
Severe sickle cell disease
110
What happens in sickle cell anemia with a heterozygous genotype (one normal, one sickle cell allele)?
Mild form of the disease
111
How do sickle cells differ from normal red blood cells?
They are abnormally shaped (crescent/sickle shape)
111
In incomplete dominance, traits don’t show full dominance but appear as a ___
Blend
112
What is the normal shape of a red blood cell?
Round and disc-shaped
113
What problems can sickle-shaped cells cause?
They can get stuck, block blood flow, and carry less oxygen
114
Why is sickle cell considered incomplete dominance?
Because heterozygotes (one normal, one sickle allele) show a mild form instead of being completely healthy or completely sick
114
What is the advantage of being heterozygous for sickle cell?
It gives some protection against malaria
115
In incomplete dominance, one allele completely masks the other
False
116
What is co-dominance?
What is co-dominance?
116
Give an example of co-dominance
Type AB blood (both A and B alleles are expressed equally)
116
FILL IN THE BLANK
In co-dominance, neither allele is hidden — both are ___
Fully expressed
117
How is co-dominance different from incomplete dominance?
In co-dominance, both traits show equally (e.g., AB blood)
118
what is incomplete dominance?
while in incomplete dominance, traits blend (e.g., pink flowers from red + white)
118
What does the “blue-green” eye color example show?
Some traits are influenced by multiple genes, not just one dominant/recessive pair
118
What is co-dependence ?
both traits show equally (e.g., AB blood)
119
What type of inheritance explains blue-green eyes?
Polygenic inheritance (trait controlled by many genes)
120
What is polygenic inheritance?
Traits determined by an interaction of multiple genes
121
Give examples of polygenic traits
Height and skin color
122
What is X-linked inheritance?
Traits determined by genes located on the X chromosome
123
Why do X-linked traits affect males more than females?
Males only have one X chromosome, so a single recessive gene shows
124
Give examples of X-linked traits
Color blindness, hemophilia
125
The X chromosome has fewer genes than the Y chromosome
False — the X chromosome has more genes
126
FILL IN THE BLANK
Females usually need ___ copies of a recessive X-linked gene to show the trait
Two
127
What is polygenic inheritance?
When many genes work together to determine one trait
128
What is X-linked inheritance?
When a trait is determined by a gene on the X chromosome
129
Why are males more affected by X-linked traits?
They have only one X chromosome
130
Give one example of a polygenic trait
Height (or skin color)
131
Give one example of an X-linked trait
Color blindness (or hemophilia)
132
which term is used for "many genes add up to make one trait"?
polyenic inheritance
133
what do traits come from ?
multiple genes working together
133
which term is used for "trait comes from a gene on the X chromosome" ?
x-linked inheritance
134
what term is used for : "an interaction between multiple genes" ?
polygenic inheritance
135
What does “polygenic” mean?
Many genes add up to make one trait
136
What does “X-linked” mean?
The trait comes from a gene on the X chromosome
136
What is an example of an X-linked disorder?
Hemophilia
137
How many copies of a recessive X-linked gene must females have to show the trait?
Two copies
138
Can people live with genetic or chromosomal abnormalities?
Yes, some conditions are not deadly and allow survival
138
How many copies of a recessive X-linked gene must males have to show the trait?
One copy
138
What are genetic and chromosomal abnormalities?
Rare conditions caused by problems with genes or chromosomes
139
What effect can genetic or chromosomal abnormalities have on a fetus?
They can lower the chances of survival
140
Are all genetic or chromosomal abnormalities lethal?
No, some babies survive and live with these conditions
141
FILL IN THE BLANK
Genetic and chromosomal abnormalities are ___ but can affect survival.
Rare
142
What is a mutation?
A spontaneous change in genetic material caused by an error in gene replication
143
TRUE OR FALSE
Can mutations be good, neutral, or bad?
Yes, they can be helpful, have no effect, or be harmful.
144
define good mutations
they can be helpful
145
define bad mutations
they can be harmful
146
define neutral mutations
they can have no effect
147
Give an example of a “good” mutation
Heterozygous sickle-cell anemia (carrier status gives protection from malaria)
148
Give an example of a neutral mutation
Blind cave fish (mutation has no harmful effect)
149
Give an example of a harmful mutation
Hemophilia
150
What causes mutations ?
Errors during DNA replication
151
What effect does heterozygous sickle-cell have?
Mild symptoms but protection against malaria
152
Why is blind cave fish an example of a neutral mutation?
Because the mutation does not affect survival in their dark environment
153
Why is hemophilia considered a “bad” mutation?
It impairs blood clotting and can be life-threatening
154
What does a spontaneous mutation mean?
It happens naturally without outside influence.
155
Can mutations add new variation to a population?
Yes, they are a source of genetic diversity
156
What is one benefit of genetic variation from mutations?
Populations can adapt better to changing environments
157
Are all mutations noticeable?
No, some have no effect on phenotype
158
What happens if a mutation occurs in reproductive cells?
It can be passed on to offspring
159
What happens if a mutation occurs in body (somatic) cells?
it may affect only that individual, not offspring.
160
what term is defined by "sudden change in molecular structure of the gene" ?
mutation
161
TRUE OR FALSE
is radiation an example of mutations ?
TRUE
162
TRUE OR FALSE
can mutations be passed on from parent to offspring ?
TRUE
162
what is sickle-cell anemia caused by ?
mutated genes
163
What is hemophilia?
A genetic disorder where blood doesn’t clot properly due to missing or low clotting proteins, often passed on through the X chromosome
163
What genetic disorder is shown in this pedigree (example in class) ?
Hemophilia
163
How is hemophilia passed down in this family tree?
Through generations, often carried by females and expressed in males
164
What does a red square/circle represent in this pedigree?
A person with hemophilia.
165
What does a half-red circle represent?
A female carrier (has the gene but usually no symptoms)
166
Why are male carriers not shown?
Males cannot be “carriers” for X-linked traits — if they inherit the mutated gene, they express the disorder
167
Why does hemophilia appear more in males than females?
Because males only have one X chromosome, so one mutated gene is enough to cause the disorder
168
Why might a female carrier not show symptoms?
Because she has a second normal X chromosome that can compensate.
169
What does this pedigree demonstrate about genetic mutations?
Mutated genes can be passed down through multiple generations
169
Who was the first known carrier in this pedigree?
Queen Victoria
170
How does this pedigree show the concept of X-linked inheritance?
The gene is passed from mothers (carriers) to sons, who express the disorder
171
What does a blank (unshaded) square or circle represent?
A normal male or female with no hemophilia gene
171
What is the significance of the note “male died in infancy, possible hemophilia”?
It suggests hemophilia can be life-threatening early in life
172
What type of mutation causes hemophilia?
A mutation in genes responsible for blood clotting proteins.
173
Why is a pedigree useful in genetics?
It tracks inheritance of genetic traits across generations
174
What does this example show about carriers’ role in genetic disorders?
Carriers can unknowingly pass on harmful mutations without showing symptoms themselves
175
What are X-linked defective genes?
Mutations on the X chromosome that cause disorders
176
what are some examples of x-linked defective genes ?
colour blindness and hemophilia
177
What are recessive defective genes?
Disorders that appear only if a person inherits two copies of the defective gene
178
Name three recessive defective gene disorders
Cystic fibrosis, Tay Sachs, and phenylketonuria (PKU)
178
What is phenylketonuria (PKU)?
A genetic disorder where the body cannot break down a specific amino acid, requiring a special diet
179
What is cystic fibrosis?
A recessive disorder that affects mucus, sweat, and digestive juices, causing thick secretions
179
What is Tay Sachs disease?
A recessive disorder that damages nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, often fatal in early life
180
what disorder : is a disorder that damages your lungs, digestive tract and other organs
cystic fibrosis
180
What are dominant defective genes?
Disorders that occur when only one copy of the defective gene is inherited
181
Give an example of a dominant defective gene disorder
Huntington’s disease
181
What is Huntington’s disease?
A dominant genetic disorder that causes brain cell breakdown, with symptoms often showing in mid-life
182
What are chromosomal abnormalities?
When sections of a chromosome are deleted, duplicated, or relocated
183
What can cause chromosomal abnormalities?
Missing pieces, extra copies, or pieces moved to another location
184
How do chromosomal abnormalities affect the body?
They can change how genes work and lead to health problems or birth defects.
185
What does “deletion” mean in chromosomes?
A piece of the chromosome is missing
186
What does “duplication” mean in chromosomes?
A section of the chromosome is copied twice
187
What does “relocation” (or translocation) mean in chromosomes?
A section of a chromosome is moved to another place
188
What causes Down syndrome?
Having 3 copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual 2 (Trisomy 21).
189
What is another name for Down syndrome?
Trisomy 21
190
What type of abnormality is Down syndrome?
A chromosomal abnormality (extra chromosome)
191
What are some common features of Down syndrome?
Distinct facial features, intellectual disability, and possible heart or health issues
191
How many chromosomes do individuals with Down syndrome have in total?
47 chromosomes (instead of 46)
192
What causes Down syndrome?
An extra chromosome 21 (Trisomy 21)
192
What facial feature is commonly seen in Down syndrome?
Almond-shaped eyes
193
What hand feature is sometimes present in individuals with Down syndrome?
A single crease across the palm
194
What toe feature is sometimes seen in Down syndrome?
A wide gap between the big toe and second toe
195
What body characteristics are common in Down syndrome?
- Short stature
- shorter/chubby fingers
- toes
- flatter skull
195
What type of delays may be present in Down syndrome?
Learning delays
196
Why does Down syndrome cause a wide range of effects?
Because the extra chromosome affects many genes
197
what does Fragile X Syndrome lead to ?
- learning problems
- speech delays
- social/behavioral challenges
- physical traits like a longer face and large ears.
197
What is Fragile X Syndrome?
A genetic disorder caused by a mutation on the X chromosome
198
What causes Fragile X Syndrome?
A mutation on the X chromosome
198
Why is Fragile X Syndrome more severe in boys?
Because boys have only one X chromosome
199
What are some learning-related signs of Fragile X Syndrome?
Learning problems and speech delays.
200
What social/behavioral challenges can occur with Fragile X Syndrome?
Social difficulties, behavior challenges, and sometimes features similar to autism
201
What other health or behavioral issues can be seen in Fragile X Syndrome?
Hyperactivity and heart problems
202
Fragile X Syndrome occurs when what part of the chromosome is damaged?
Parts of the X chromosome
203
what are some physical features linked to Fragile X Syndrome?
Larger/narrow face, bigger ears, and possible head problems
204
What is Turner Syndrome?
A chromosomal disorder in females where they have only one X chromosome (XO instead of XX)
205
what syndrome is it called when a female is missing their second X ?
Turner Syndrome
205
What are key features of Turner Syndrome?
- Short height
- infertility
- possible heart or learning problems
206
What secondary characteristics may be absent in Turner Syndrome?
Secondary sex characteristics (like puberty development)
206
What health risks are associated with Turner Syndrome?
Cardiovascular issues and sometimes lower spatial IQ scores
207
What are possible side effects of ‘Super-Female’ Syndrome?
Slightly taller height and sometimes learning or speech difficulties
207
What is ‘Super-Female’ Syndrome?
A condition where females have extra X chromosomes (XXX or more)
208
Do most females with XXX/XXXX have major health problems?
No, they are usually physically and cognitively normal
208
Can women with XXX/XXXX have children?
Yes, they can produce offspring
208
How is ‘Super-Female’ Syndrome often discovered?
Usually through genetic testing (DNA test), since it often has no obvious physical signs
209
What is Klinefelter Syndrome?
A genetic condition where males have one or more extra X chromosomes (e.g., XXY, XXXY)
209
What gender does Klinefelter Syndrome affect?
males
210
What are common physical signs of Klinefelter Syndrome?
- Taller than average height
- less facial/body hair
- small testes
211
What are possible developmental signs of Klinefelter Syndrome?
Learning difficulties, speech delays, and language deficits
211
How does Klinefelter Syndrome affect testosterone levels?
It often leads to low testosterone, which can cause infertility
212
Can males with Klinefelter Syndrome have children naturally?
Usually no, because of infertility
213
Why is Klinefelter Syndrome often not diagnosed until later in life?
Many symptoms are mild or not obvious, so they can be overlooked
214
What is Super Male Syndrome (XYY)?
A condition where males have an extra Y chromosome (XYY).
214
Who does XYY Syndrome affect?
Males
215
How does XYY Syndrome affect appearance and fertility?
Males usually have normal appearance and normal fertility
216
What is a common physical trait of males with XYY Syndrome?
Taller than average height
217
What developmental problems can occur in XYY Syndrome?
Mild learning or speech problems, and sometimes delayed motor skills
217
How does XYY Syndrome affect intelligence?
Most males have average intelligence
217
What behavioral trait is sometimes linked to XYY Syndrome?
Sometimes more aggression
218
Can someone know they have XYY without DNA testing?
Often no — it may go unnoticed unless genetic testing is done
218
What are environmental hazards that can cause genetic abnormalities?
Radiation, toxins, or infections that damage chromosomes
219
What does the “Aging Ova” hypothesis suggest?
Older eggs have a higher chance of chromosome mistakes
220
Why does egg age matter for genetic abnormalities?
Women are born with all their eggs; older eggs have had more exposure to environmental factors
221
Which chromosomal abnormality is more common as women get older?
Down Syndrome
222
What happens when sperm from older men is combined with old eggs?
There is a higher chance of mistakes in chromosomes
222
Why can older sperm contribute to abnormalities?
Sperm from older men may pass on more mutations or errors
223
How do environmental hazards differ from aging ova in causing abnormalities?
Hazards damage chromosomes directly, while aging ova increases error risk over time
223
Why is the chance of abnormalities higher in pregnancies at older ages?
Because both eggs and sperm from older adults may have more chromosome mistakes
224
what are some environmental hazards that can damage chromosomes ?
- radiation
- toxins
- infections
224
describe "aging ova" hypothesis ?
older eggs have a higher chance of chromosomes
225
TRUE OR FALSE
eggs or sperm from older adults may have more mistakes in chromosomes
TRUE
226
TRUE OR FALS
women are born with all of her eggs
TRUE
Child Development 2040
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