1
Q
Define Sex.
A
The biological classificication of indivudals as female or male or intersex on innate largely unchangable characterstics.
2
Q
Define Gender.
A
The psychological and social characterstics associated with being masculine or feminine acting as a social constrict than a biological fact.
3
Q
Define Geneder Dysphoria.
A
A profound distressing sense of unease resulting from a mismatch between a person’s gender indentity and their assigned fact.
4
Q
Define Sex-role Sterotypes.
A
The shared expectations within a society or socia group regarding what is appropriate behaviour for men and women.
5
Q
Define Androgyny.
A
Partially male and Partially female.
6
Q
Define Bem Sex Role Inventory. BSRI
A
A questionaire thta aims to assess a persons masculinity or femininity.
7
Q
Define Instrumentality.
A
The belief that acheiving a specific perfomance level or outcome will tend to a desired reward or future.
8
Q
Define Experessivity.
A
The externl observable behaviours wich and individual uses to prodject masculinity,femininty or androgyny.
9
Q
Define Meterosexual.
A
A heterosexual male whi is fastidous about his appearance, grooming and style, spending his time on shopping, skincare and fashion.
10
Q
Define Ladette.
A
A young oman who adopts behaviours traditionally associated with young men.
11
Q
How can sex-role sterotypes be communicated?
A
-By society
-Reinforced by parents,peers and the media
-can leads to sexist assumptions.
12
Q
What evidence to show that women are better than multitasking than men?
A
Madhura Ingalhalikar et al reforme brain scans on men and women with mRI.
They found that woman had better connections between right and left hemispheres while men has more inetense activity of the brains individuals parts eg cerebelum.
This showed that women were hard wired to cope with several tasks while men could focus on a single complex task.
13
Q
What is an example of showing the difference between sex and gender?
A
The Batista Boys- Mcginley examined 4 children who identified/raised as female.
-During puberty their vaginas closed over and testicles formed.
-Boys abandoned their female identity and adapted to roles of boys.
14
Q
What is an example of androgenous children?
A
Sashas parents didnt reveal his gender till he was five. They did not want him to be influences by society’s sterotypes so they allowed him to play with gender neutral toys and wear boys and girl outfits.
15
Q
What is high androgyny associated with?
A
With being psychologically healthy as those who are both psychologically masc and fem are more equipped to adapt to a range of situations. Non androgenous pepole have a narrow range of traits to draw on.
16
Q
How do you measure androgyny?
A
Bem’s Sex role Inventory.
17
Q
What does the BSRI consist of?
A
20 characteristics which are masuline,20 feminine and 20 androgenous. To be rate from a 1-7 scale
18
Q
How are the scores interpreted in the BSRI?
A
Masculine- HIgh masc and low fem
Feminine- Low masc and high fem
Androgenous- high masc and high fem
Undifferentiated- low masc low fem
19
Q
Wht are the strengths of Androgyny and the BSRI test?
A
The scale apears to be valid and reliable
-Associations between andryogyny and psychological well being.
20
Q
Why is the scale being reliable and valid a strength of the BSRI test?
A
P:One strength of the BSRI is that validity and reliability has been established through testing.
E:50 of each gender asked to rate 200 traits of how desirable they are for both genders.
Highest scores were added to the traits on the scale.
E:Test was piloted and results aligned with their own gender identity.
E:This suggests that the scale has high test retest reliability-> responses results from test was aligned with their gender identity makes it Valid.
21
Q
Why is associations between androgyny and psychologcal wellbeing a strength for Androgyny?
A
P:Bem placed emphasis that andogynous individuals are more psychologically healthy as they can deal with a range of situations better.
E:Researchers argues that people who has more masculine traits can adjust to individualist cultures.
E:This shows that Bems research has not take in the social context when developing this research.
22
Q
What are the limitations to Bem’s BSRI test?
A
Oversimilifies a complex concept.
23
Q
Why is oversimplifying a complex concept a limiation for the BSRI test?
A
P:One limitation is that the BSRI is inappropriate to reduce gender identity into a single score- too complex
E: Other tests - personal attribute questionaire which replaces masc and fem with instrumentality with expressivity
E:PAQ is still based on gender inditity which can be quantified.
E:Suggests that BSRI cannot provide a full understanding of gender identity and holistic methods are needed.
24
Q
Define Chromoomes.
A
Structures in the nucleus that carry DNA and determine biological sex at conception- XX XY
25
Define hormones.
The body's chemicl messengers. They travel through the blood stream, influencing many different processes.
26
Define Androgens.
Steroid hrmones( testostrone) whhich strive male sexual development, bring differntiation and male typical behaviours.
27
Define Testosterone.
A hormone that plays an important role in development of males.
28
Define Oestrogen.
Primary sex female ormone which regulates the female reproductive system.
29
Define Oxytocin.
'Love Hormone' A hromone that is released during child birth, breastfeeding and bonding.
30
Define Premenstural syndrome.
A combo of emotional, physical and behavioural symptoms during the luteal phase of the cycle.
31
Define Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns.
The standard biologically expected arrangement of chromosome to determine sex.
32
Define Genes.
A short section of DNA which determine characteristics.
33
What does the Y chromosome carry?
The SRY gene which causes testes to develop and androgens cause the embryo to be male.
34
What is the influence of hormones prenatally?
They act upon the brain development and cause development of reproductive organs.
35
What is the rat study on testosterone and agression?
Van de poll et al found that female rats who were injected with testosterone were more physically and sexually agressive.
36
What is the effects of oestrogen on women?
Causes women to be more emotional and irritability during the mentural cycle
37
What are the effects of Oxytocin on women?
-large quantities at birth
-sitmulates lactation
-reduces cortisol and faticilates bonding
38
What is the relationship with oxytocin and men?
Men produce less oxytocin but both sexes produce the same amount during kissing and sexual intercorse.
39
What are the strengths of the role of chromosomes and horomones on gender indentity?
-Evidence to support the role of chromosomes and hormones
40
Why is evidence to support the role of chromosomes a strength of determining the influence of chromosomes on gener identity?
P:One strength is that there is evidence to support the role of chromosomes on gender identity. EG David reimer
E:Dabbs et l-> prisoners with high levels of testosterone was more likely to commit a crime.
E:Suggests that sex hormones do exert some infuence over gender related behaviours this increases validity.
41
What are weaknesses of the role of chromosomes and hormones on gender identity?
-Contradictory evidence
-Objections to pre menstural syndome.
42
Why is contradictory evidence a limitation for the role of chromosomes on gender identity?
P:A weakness is that there is contrdictary evidence which sugests that chromosomes and hormones are not important in gender development.
E:Double Blind, Thicker et al gives males testosterone or placebo weekly.
No Significant differnce found after 10 weeks.
Slabberkoorn saw no consistant effects on gender related behaviours.
E:This Suggests that chromosomes and hormones role in gender is questionable- not valid/reliable.
43
Why is objections to pre menstural syndrome?
P: A weakness is that many people have questioned levels of oestrogen levels on a womens mood which can sterotype womens experiances and emotion.
E:Rodin says that PMS is a social construct not a biological fact but priviliging women over others.
E:Suggest that explaining gender related behaviour in terms of influences of hormones is not accurate or useful
44
What is the case of Caster Semenya?
A South african runner who won in 2009 world championships.
-She is intersex- accused of cheating as not 'truly female'
-External female genitalia but undecended testes
-But she doesnt make use of her increased testosterone.
45
Define Kleinfelter's Syndrome?
A genetic disroder where in a person is born with the chromosome profile XXY
46
Define Gynoecomastia?
The proliferation of glandular breast tissue in male, causing significant psychological distress with gender inconsistancy.
47
Define Turner's Syndrome.
A genetic disorder where in a person is borm with the chromsome profile X
48
Define Amenorrhea.
The absence of menstration.
49
Who does Kleinfleter's Syndrome only effect?
Biological males
50
How many cases of Kleinflters Syndrome infentified through prenatal diagnosis?
10%
51
How many people at not aware they have kelinfelters syndrome?
2/3
52
What are some psychological aspects of Kleinfelters Syndrome?
-Clumsiness
-Shy
-Poorly Developed langage skills
-Lack of memory and problem solving skills
-Lacks of interest in sexual activity
-Poor reading ability
53
What are some Physical features of Kleinfelters Syndrome?
- breast development- Susceptible to more disease
-Long gangly limbs
-Reduced Body hair
-Underdeveloped genitals-infertlity
54
What are some psychological features of Turner's syndrome?
-Higher average reading ability
-Socially immature+ touble with relating to peers
-spatial visual and math to a low level
55
What are some physical features of Turner's syndrome?
-Physically immature
-low ears
-webbed neck
-no breasts
-no mestural cycle-sterile
-hips not bigger than waist.
56
What are the strengths of atypical sex chromsome patterns telling us about gender development?
-Contributions to the nature nurture debate
-Practical Application
57
Why is contributions to nature nurture debate a strength of atypical sex chromsome patterns telling us about gender development?
P: Studies of people with atypical sex chromsome patterns are useful due to them contributing to the nature nurture debate.
E:Comparing people with these conditions with typicals we are able to see the differences
E:These differences occur due to a biological basis being a resut of abnormal chomosomes suggest that naure has influence on psychology.
58
Why is practical application a strengh of atypical sex chromsome patterns telling us about gender development?
P:One strength is that research into atypical sex chromosome led to accurate diagnosis in the future.
E:Herlihy et al -87 indviduals with kelinfelter's syndrome showed that those who had been identified and treated had singnificant benefits.
E:Increased awareness of these conditions may have a practical application.
59
Define gender identity.
The first stage of gender development according to kohlberg. This is where a child first identifies themselves as male/female.
60
Define gender stablity.
The second stage of gender development according to kohlerg. This is where a child is not aware that their gender does not change.
61
Define Gender consistancy.
The third stage where according to Kohlberg is where the child develops understanding that gender does not change with superficial changes.
62
Who proposed the first congnitive theory of gender development?
Lawrence Kohlberg
63
What is Kohlbergs theory based off?
That a childs gender development beomes sophisticated with age and runs parallel with intelectual development.
64
When does Gender indentify form?
2-3 years old.
65
What is the understanding of sex at the gender identity stage?
They dont understand that sex is permemant.
66
What is their understanding of gender at the gender identity stage?
-They can identify themselves as a boy/girl and others but stops beyond labelling.
67
When does gender stability form?
At age 4
68
What is the undertanding of sex at the gender stability stage?
They believe that they can change their sex if they engange in opposite sex activites often.
69
What is their understanding of gender at the gender stability stage?
-realises their own gender is constant but not others.
-
70
When does gender consistancy form?
The age of 6
71
What is the understanding around sex during the gender consitancy stage?
-They understand that their and others gender and sex remains constant and consistant across time and situations.
-No longer fooled by outward appearances.
72
What do children at the gender consistancy seek out?
Gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate.
73
What are the strengths of the Kohlberg's theory explaining gender development?
-Evidence to support the sequence of stages.
74
Why is evidence to support the sequence of stages a strength of Kohlberg's Theory?
P:Evidence by Slaby and Frey to support the sequence of stages by Kohlberg.
E:Split screen of images of females and males preforming the same task.
-Younger children spend the same time looking at both
-6 Year olds spent longer looking at same sex as them- shows that they are seeking out role models.
E:Monroe et al found cross cultural research to prove Kohlbergs theory
E:Suggest that the theory is accurate and universal to be generalised.
75
What are the limitations for Kohlbergs Theory?
-Methodological issues
-Constancy not supported
76
Why is methgodological issues a limitation?
P:Had interviews with 2/3 year olds.
E: Questions were tailored to the age group but the children had the lack of vocab to express undersanding
-may have complex ideas about gender but no words to say them
E:What they express does not represent their understanding, limiting validity of the theory for an explaination.
77
Why is the gender constancy stage not supported a limitation for Kohlberg's theory for an explaination for gender development?
P: Looking for and identify with role models of the same sex has not been consistant with all research findings
E: Bussey and Bandura- found that children must do gender appropriate behaviours before GC- saw that children at 4 felt good with playing gender appropriate toys and bad with non.
E:Contraditcs Kohlbergs theory and suppport gender schema theory.
E:Kohlbergs theory is not complete theory as findings do not align.
78
Define Gender schema.
A generalised represenation of everything we know in relation to what means to be male or female and gender appropriate behaviour.
79
Define Ingroup.
A social group of the same gender to which and individual belongs, identifies with and feels an emotional attachement.
80
Define Outgroup.
The outgroup consists of individuals of a different gender than ones owns.
81
What will a child search for to form a gender schema?
2-3 year old child will search for information to form a gender schema.
82
How is gender schema formed?
Through sterotypes of gender behvaiours and personality traits to provide a framework which directs experiance and the childs understanding of themselves.
83
What will a child have by the age of 6 in gender schema theory?
They will have a fixed idea about what is gender appropriate and start to disregard information which does not fit their schema.
84
What happens when a child turns 8 in gender schema theory?
They develop schemas of the opposite gender and their own gender.
85
What do children have a better understanding of?
They have a bettwer understanding of the schemas that are appropraite to their own gender( ingroup_
86
What can an ingroup identity lead to?
HIgher self esteem.
87
What are the strengths of the gender schema theory in explaining gender development?
-Evidence supporting gender schema theory
- Ridigity of gender beleifs
88
Why is evidence to support gender schema a strength of gender schema theory explaining gender development?
P:One strength of gender schema theory is that Martin and Halversons research supports the theory.
E:THey found that children under 6 could remember gender consistant photographs than incosistant .
They change the geder inconsistant activity person
E:Shows that it is consistant with gender shcema and is more accurate.
89
Why ridgity of gender beliefs a strength of gender schema as an explaination of gender development?
P:It accounts for younge childrens fixed gender attitudes.
E:Information which conflicts with existing schema would be ignored.
Children display a strong ingroup bias in how they process infromation as they pay more attention to ingroup information.
E:Shows gender schema can explain many aspects of childrens thinking of gender.
90
Why is complementing Kohlberg's theory a strength of gender schema?
P:Strangor and Ruble suggest gender schema and consistancy can discribe different process.
E:Gender schema: Shows how gender inconsistant infromation affects memory.
Gender Consistancy: Linked to motivation to find about gender roles and activites
E:Suggest that the theories should be brought together for a fuller understanding.
91
Define Pre-phallic.
Pre-phallic children are bisexual( nor masc nor fem). No concept of gender at this stage
92
Define Oedipus Complex.
A child's unconsious sexual desire for the opposite sex parent and rivalry with the same sex parent during phallic stage.
93
Define Castration Anxiety.
An intense/unconsious fear of damage to or loss of penis.
94
Define Electra Complex.
A young girls unconsious sexual desire for her father and rivalry with her mother during the phallic stage.
95
Define Penis Envy.
Anxiety/inferioroty ipon realisting they lack a penis, infleuncing female development.
96
What is the pre phallic stages?
Oral and Anal stages.
97
What did Freud say what is important about gender identity?
Freud said that passing the psychosexual stage is crutial in forming a gender identity.
98
What do boys adapt to have after the psychosexual stage?
They adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their father and develop a male identity through the process of identification they become active and dominant.
99
What do girls adop to have after the psychosexual stages?
They adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their mother and develop a female identity. THrough the process of identification they become quiet and submissive.
100
Why do boys adopt these attitudes?
They develop a strong identiy with their father because their fear of castration is strong.
101
Why girls develop this identity?
They develop a weaker indentity than men because their fear is not aas strong as their fear of castration that men feel.
102
Define Identification.
A stage of gender development according to Freud where the child wholly and internally adopt the beliefs of the parent they identify with.
103
Define Identification.
A stage of gender development according to Freud where the child 'identifies' with the same sex parent.
104
What are the limitation for the Psychodynamic being an explaination for gender development?
-Research does not support the Oedipus complex
-Inadequate account of female development.
-Non nuclear families.
105
Why is research not supporting the Oedipus complex a limitation for the Psychodynamic explaination?
P:Research by Blakemore and Hill disproves the theory.
E:They found boys with liberal fathers creating high levels of anxiety leads to strong identitification
E:This sugges that it cant be applied to every boy.
106
Why is an inadequate account of female development a limitation for the psychodynamic approach?
P:Carl Jung wrote the theory of the Electra Complex
E:Penis Envy refelected the patriarchal victorian era.
Horney said that men feel more womb envy than women with penis envy+ is a cultural concept that innnate
E:This shows that they theory is nore generalisable to this modern day era and androcentric.
107
Why is non nucelar families a limitation for the Psychodynamic explaination?
P:Research from single parent families/
same sex than non
E:Golombok showed how single parents children develop normal gender .
E:Green discovered 37 children raised by Gay/transgender paretns were typical
E:Shows that children dont need two parents to have a typical gender as suggested by Freud.
108
Define Displacement.
An a person redirects negative emotions from a original thret to a less threatening subsitute.
109
Define Social learning theory.
Gender roles and behaviours are learned through observation, modelling, immitation and reinforcement than innate factors.
110
Define Direct Reinforcement.
The process by which a child's gender typed behaviours are strengthened/weakened through direct consequences than innate factors.
111
Define Differntial reinforcement.
The process where hcildren are encouraged to adopt gender appropriate behaviours through a combo of direct rewards and punishments to gender roles.
112
Define Vicarious reinforcement.
Children watch adult/peers receive praise for gender- appropriate behaviour encouraging them to copy it to receive simular rewards.
113
Define role models.
Individuals who is admired and identity with who demostrate gender appropriate behaviour.
114
Define Modelling.
Individuals learn gender appropriate behaviours by observing and imitating others.
115
Define Mediational processes.
Cognitive processes which intervene between gender appropraite behaviour and imitating it.
116
What are the strengths of the social learning theory in being a explaination for gender development?
-Supporting evidence
-Explains changing gender roles in Western society.
117
Why is supporting evidence a strength for the social learning theory as a explantion for gender development?
P:One strength is supporting evidence of SLT by smith and Lloyd.
E:4-6 month babies were dressed in boy clothes and give a hammer or given girl clothes and a doll then interacted with adults.
results: 'Boys' were encouraged to be active and adventerous
'girls' were reinforced to be passive
E:Suggests that gender beahviours are reinforced at a young age.
118
Why is explaining changes in western society a strength of the social learning theory for gender development?
P:One strength for the SLT is that the shift of masculine and feminine behaviour in our society today is different .
E:Societal expectations and cultural normas shows that new forms of gender behaviour has been reinforced.
E:Shows that there is no change in peoples biology but the shift can be explained by SLT.
119
What are the limitations for social learning theory being an explaination for gender development?
P:Critics shown that hte learning theory has not shown the process of learning with age.
E:Limitations include children might no physically/intelectually be capable of motor reproduction
E:Dublin says that they may take on a role model later on inlife but imitation comes later in life-> aligns with kohlberg
E:infleunce of age is not a factor considerd so it is a limited explanation.
120
Define Biosocail theory.
A gender theory which says that gender is determined by interaction between biological factors and social factors.
121
Define Culture.
The shared beleifs, attitudes, traditions and behaviours of a group that are passed down through generations.
122
Define Media.
The main stream of mass communication regarded collectively.
123
Define imposed etic.
When a researcher assumes a theory /method/behaviour specific to their culture is universal.
124
Define Hijras.
Nonbinary in western cultures, males with male sexual characterstics but do not identify as a man nor woman.
125
Define Fa'afafine.
Biological males who identify as a third gender or a feminine gender role in samoan culture.
126
Define Transgender.
An umbrella term for those gender identity/ expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
127
What debate does cross cultural research have influence on?
Nature nurture debate.
128
What did Margret Mead do ?
A cross cultural study on the island of New Guinea.
129
What did Margret Find out about the Arapesh people?
They were gentle and responsive( fem )
130
What did Margret find out about the Mundugumor people?
They were agressive and hostile(masc)
131
What did Margret find out about the Tchamuli women and men?
She found that the women are more dominant while the men were decorative and passive.
132
What did Margrets cross cultrual findings find?
That there must not be a biological relationship between sex and gender but culturally determined. Although innate behaviours are due to cultural norms.
133
What cultural simulaties research was done?
David Buss found consistant pattens of mate prefernces in 37 countires of all continents.
Monroe and Monroe saw most moceitues are divdes by males as breadwinner and females as nurtures.
134
What did David Buss find?
Women wanted wealth and resrouceful men
Men wanted youthful and attractive partner
135
What are the limitations for the research into cultures infleunce of on gender roles?
-Ciricisms of Meads Research
-Imposed etic
-Nature vs Nurture
136
Why is criticisms of Mead's research a limitation of the influence of culture on gender roles?
P:One limitation is that Mead's research is not prone to bias and based on a short period of study.
E:Freeman critivised Mead's conclusions and said there was research bias and her ppts were misleading.
E:Shows that the data might not be reliable and generalisable to the whole ppopluation as the findings are not valid.
137
Why is imposed etic a limitation for the infleucne of cluture on gender roles?
P:One limitation is that western research research indigenous populations
E:The west might impose their owen cultureal interests and understanding onto the indigenous people
berry et al says that imposed etic research is meaningless, needs atleast one local indivudal in the research team.
E: Shows that the method used can cause invaldi resuts and the research must mention this.
138
Why is nature or nurture a limition for the influence of culture on gender roles?
P:Research does not solve the nature nurture debate. As it is impossible to seperate the two on gender roles
E:Children are immedietly born into a gender streotypical society
E:Becomes difficult to determine the distinction of nature and nurture only a complex interaction.
139
What are men seen as in the Media?
Men are seen as independant, ambitious advice givers.
140
What are Women seen as in the Media?
Women are seen as dependant, unabitious advice seekers.
141
What does the Media provide?
Role models that children may identify with and want to imitate.
142
What did Furnham and Farrangher research?
Tv adverts on gender roles.
143
What did Furnham and Farrangher find?
They found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts and women are shown to be in more domestic contexts.
144
What did McGhee and Freuh find?
They found that more expose to poular forms of media means more gender streotypical views.
145
What does media also do to children in gender roles?
-watching allows children to believe they can carry out the behaviours in the future.
-provides information to both sexes/gender and likely hood of adopting these behaviours.
146
Define self efficacy.
an individual's belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to achieve specific performance goals
147
What are the weaknesses to the influnce of the media on gnder roles?
- correlation not causation
-counter sterotypes
148
Why is correlation not causation a weakness of the influences of the media on gender roles?
P:It is difficult to establish cause and effect of gender studies
E:One reason is the after effects of the media causing social normso r the media is an output of the current gender norms
E:
149
Why is counter sterotypes a limitation to the infleunce of media on gender roles?
P:In the recent years there have been examples of counter sterotypes in the media to challange the traditional sterotypes
E:Eg Brave, Pingree found that sterotyping is reduced more for girls than boys.
Challange the status quo and challanging the norms.
E:Affects males and females in differnt ways
150
Why is Williams et al research support a strenghth to the infleunce of media on gender roles?
P:Research support
E:Observed gender streotypical attitudes among children of 3 towns over 2 years
2 towns expressed few sex typed views and less gender sterotypical behaviour than the other
151
Define Brain Sex Theory.
A theory which says that factors organise the brain into distinct male/female structures.
152
Define Dimorphic.
The existance of two distinct physical or behavioural forms between males and females.
153
Define Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.
Critical brain reigon involved in stress anxiety and has the highest degree of sexual dimorphism.
154
Who does the brain sex theory exclude?
Intersex people.
155
What did Zhou et al study?
He studied the bed of the nucleus of the stria terminalis and found they were more developed and 40% larger in males than females
156
When is the Bed of the nucleus of the stria terminalis developed fully?
Age 5.
157
What did researchers find in post mortum studies about gender dysphoria?
They found that MTF individuals have a simular size of females BSTC
158
What did Jruijver et al study?
He studies a number of neurons in the BSTc of transgender individuals and had the same neuron range as a female.
159
What did coolridge et al assess?
They assessed 157 (95 MZ + 61DZ) twins using DSM-4 and found that 2.3% of 62% of individuals are genetic of GD
160
What did Heylens et al find?
THey compared 23 MZ twins with DZ where one had GD
39% of MZ was concordant
0% of DZ twins was concordant,
161
What are the limitations to the biological explainations to gender dysphoria?
-contradictory evidence for BSTc
-twin studies are inconclusive
-biological explainations
162
Why is contradictory evidence for BSTc a limitation for biological explainations for gender dysphoria?
P:Stated BSTc is fully formed at 5 so no HRT would have effect on BSTc
E:Hulshoffpol et al found HRT affects the size of the BSTc.
Maybe because of the HRT than BSTc as the cause .
E:Chung et al said that structural braing changes do not occur till later in life.
E::This shows there may noy be braing difference determining GD.
163
Why is twin studies inconclusive a limitation for biological explainations for gender dysphoria?
P:Findings of twin studies are inconclusive
E:Not high concordance rates, it is dificult to separate nature and nurture. Environments exposed are very simular. Sample sizes are small as GD is rare.
E:This limits generalisation of findings to real life
164
Why is biological explainations oversimplify a complex concept?
P:Biological explainations reduce complex conditions to a hero anatomical/hormonal level
E:Other contributory factors occur at a higher psychological/social level which is ignored
E:An interactionist approch may be more complex explaination for GD.
165
Define Symbiotic Fusion.
Where an infant does not differntiate themselves from their caregiver and experiances the caregivers body presence as their own.
166
Define Duel pathway theory.
Cognitve developmental appraoch in psychology which explains how children acquire gender roles and attitudes.
167
What does Ovesey and Person say about MTF's?
They says that MTF is caused by extreme separations anxiety before gender identity.
The child wants a symbiotic fusion to relieve anxiety- child adopts sa female identity.
168
What does a symbiotic fusion lead to?
The child becomes the mother and adopts a female identity.
169
What does Stoller say about MTF in the psychoalaytic theory?
Stoller says that MTF individuals have seen to have overly close relationships with their mother which cana lead to greater female identification.
170
What is Liben and Bigler's theory of the Duel Pathway Theory?
It is a extension of gender schema theory which emphasies individual differnces in gender identity.
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What is the first pathway of the duel patherway theory?
Aknowledges gender schema to direct gender behaviour as normal development.
172
What is the second pathway of the duel pathway theory?
Describes how the child's gender attitudes are affected by their activity. Their interests moer dominant than the personality to influence gender schema.
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What can the second pathway of the duel pathway theory lead to?
Androgenous behaviour and more flexible attitudes to gender.
174
What are the issues with the psychoanalytic theory?
P:Ovesey and Person explaination only accounts for transgender males than females
E:George rekers suggests gender dysphoria is more asociated with absence of the father than fear of separation of mother. But it is difficult to test.
E:The fantasies which trigger GD are at unconsious leves so they are unware
E:This shows that it lacks generalisability for FTM and there is less validity as it is difficult to test the effect of anxiety.
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What are the issues with the cognitve theory?
P:One limitation is that the cognitive theory is more descriptive than explanitory
E:Little explaination how a child is consistant with opposite sex activites
or the development of sex schema.
E:Unable to explain the possible causes of GD
Psycology
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