1
Q
What is Short term memory?
A
The limited capacity memory store.
2
Q
What is Long term Memory store?
A
The permanent memory store.
3
Q
What is coding?
A
The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.
4
Q
What is capacity?
A
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store.
5
Q
What is Duration?
A
The length of time information can be held in memory.
6
Q
What did Alan Baddeley do to research coding of STM and LTM?
A
Alan Baddeley.
Gave differnt lists of words to 4 groups of people to remember.
Group 1- acoustically simular words
Group 2- acoustically dissimilar words
Group 3-semantically simular words
Group 4- semantically dissimilar words
7
Q
What was Alan Baddeley’s procedure?
A
He asked the participants to recall the words in the correct order.
After the participants herd the words they did worse acoustically simular words.
After 20 minutes they did worse with recalling semantically simular words.
8
Q
What were the findings of Alan Baddeley’s coding study?
A
Long Term Memory is coded Semantically
Short Term Memory is Coded Acoustically.
9
Q
What did Joseph Jacobs do to research capacity of STM ?
A
Procedure- Researcher gives 4 digits to participant and is asked to recall in correct order aloud. The researcher adds 1 digit till the participant can no longer recall the numbers. -Determines the Digit Span
10
Q
What are the findings of Joseph Jacobs research on capacity of STM?
A
Mean digit span was 9.3 items
Mean letter span was 7.3 items
11
Q
What did George Miller find?
A
Things come in sevens so capacity of STM is about 7 +- 2
People can recall 5 letters/digits by chunking(peices of information are grouped into meaningful units).
12
Q
What did Peterson and Peterson do to research duration of STM?
A
Test 24 undergraduates. Did 8 Trials.
Each student was given a consonant syllable /trigram and a 3 digit number. Then asked to count backwords for said 3 digit number.
Asked to stop after differnt amounts of time - retention interval.
13
Q
Why were the participants asked to count backwards in Petersons and Petersons research?
A
To prevent mental rehearsal.
14
Q
What were the findings of Peterson and Petersons study?
A
Suggest we have a short STM unless we repeat something over and over again. ( capacity 18-30 seconds)
15
Q
What did Henry Bharicks et al to do research Duration of LTM?
A
Studied 392 graduates from ohio ages 17-74
2 recall tests
1)Recall in Photo recognition- 50 photos
2)Free recall where participants could recall all names of graduating class.
16
Q
What were Bahricks et als findings?
A
Photo recognition
Participants within 15 year of graduation - recall was 90% accurate
Participants after 48 years of graduation -recall was 70% accurate
Free Recall
Participants within 15 years of graduation recall was - 60% accurate
Participants after 48 years of graduation recall was 30%
17
Q
What did Bahricks et al findings show?
A
That LTM’s duration is potentially forever.
18
Q
Why is lack of validity a limitation for Jacobs research on capacity of STM?
A
P:Jacobs study was taken a long time ago(1887)
E:Lacked adequate control-> participant did not preform as well as they might of.
-confounding variables were not controlled
E: results were not valid
CA: studies have shown to be valid.
19
Q
Why is that there are not so many chunks a limitation of George Millers explanation for capacity?
A
P: Miller has over estimated STM capacity.
E: Nelson Cowan Reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity of STM is 4 (plus or minus1) chunks instead of 7
E: Lower end of millers estimate is more appropriate than 7 items.
20
Q
Why is meaningless stimuli in STM study a limitation for Petersons study?
A
P: Stimuli was artificial.
E: Recalling consonant syllables not reflective to our everyday memory. Where we remember meaningful things.
E:Lacks external validity.
21
Q
Why is higher external validity a strength for Bahricks study?
A
P: High external Validity
E: -Researchers used meaningful memories to investigate LTM
-recall rates were higher
E:High external Validity- generalisable
CA: Participants may have looked back at yearbooks and rehearsed over the years.
22
Q
What is the multi store memory?
A
A representation of how memory works in terms of threes stores. It describes how information is transferred from one store to another, how it is remembered and forgotten.
23
Q
What is the sensory register?
A
The memory stores for each of our senses.
24
Q
What is the duration of the sensory register?
A
Lasts less than half a second.
25
What is the capacity of the sensory register?
Very high capacity.
26
Who made the multistore model?
Atkinson and Shiffrin.
27
What is the duration of Short term memory store?
18-30 seconds.
28
What is the capacity of Short term memory store?
Limited Capacity- only remembers a few things before forgetting
29
What is maintenance rehearsal?
A rehearsal loop which occurs when we rehearsal material over and over again.
30
How can we get information from our STM to our LTM?
If we use prolong rehearsal.
31
What is prolonged rehearsal?
When we rehearse something long enough for it to stick in our LTM
32
What is the duration of LTM?
Lasting a lifetime.
33
What is the capacity of LTM?
Unlimited Capacity
34
What retreival?
Transferring information from the LTM to the STM.
35
What is the response to retreival?
Remembering,.
36
What is the strengths of the MSM?
-Supporting research evidence
37
Why is supporting research evidence a strength for the MSM?
P:MSM has studies to show that STM and LTM is different.
E:**Baddeley** found that we mix-up acoustically simular words using our STM and mix up words semantically simular words using our LTM.
E:STM and LTM are separate and independant memory stores in MSM
38
What are the limitations of the MSM?
-There is more than on type of STM
-There is more than one type of rehearsal.
39
Why is more than on STM a limitation for the MSM?
P:Limitation of the MSM is there is more than one STM store.
E:**Tim Shallice and Elizabeth Warrington** studied KF( a patient with amnesia).Digit span was poor but his recall was better when he read digits to himself then when they read it aloud to him.(understood visual than acoustic)
E:MSM is wrong in claiming that there is just one STM.
40
Why is more than one type of rehearsal a limitation for the MSM?
P:Prolonged rehearsal is not needed for transfer to LTM.
E:**Craik and Watkins** found that its not about the length of the rehearsal but the type of rehearsal that is important.
Maintenance rehearsal keeps information in the STM while Elaborative rehearsal transfers information into the LTM- information is linked to something we already know or thinking about what it means.
E:Wrong as it only includes mainteance rehearsal.
41
What is the ionic store?
The visual sensory memory that briefly stores incoming visual information.
42
What is the Echoic store?
The auditory sensory memory that stores incoming auditory information
43
What is the Haptic store?
A sensory memory that stores information coming from sense of touch
44
What is the gustatory store?
A sensory memory that stores information coming from taste.
45
What is the olfactory store?
A sensory memory that stores information coming for smell.
46
What is elaborative rehearsal?
A memory technique in psychology that involves connecting new information with existing knowledge to enhance recall.
47
What is episodic memory?
A type of long term memory that includes conscious recollection of previous experiances together with their context in time, place and emotions.
48
What is semantic memory?
A part of LTM that stores general knowledge of the world.( facts concepts and meanings)
49
What is procedural memory?
A part of LTM that stores information about how to preform differnt actions and skills
50
Is episodic memory time stamped or not?
Time stamped.
51
Who proposed that the multi store model was too simplistic?
Endel Tulving
52
Where is episodic memory preformed?
In the right prefrontal cortex.
53
Does Semantic memory have a time stamp or not?
No time stamp
54
Does semantic memory need to be consciously recalled?
Yes
55
Where is sematic memory preformed?
In the Left prefrontal cortex
56
Does procedural memory need to be consciously recalled?
No.
57
When are procedural memories mainly learned/made ?
During early life.
58
What are the strengths of the type of LTM
+Clinical Evidence
+Neuroimaging Evidence
+real life application
59
Why is clinical Evidence a strength for type of LTM?
P:Clinical Evidence
E:Clive Wearing had difficulty recalling memories of the past but his semantic memory was unaffected because he understood the meanings of words. Procedural memory was intact
E:Supports Tulving's Types of LTM as one can be damaged but the others unaffected.
+shows they are stored in differnt parts of the brain.
60
Why is neuroimaging evidence a strength of the Type of LTM?
P:Neruoimaging evidence from brain studies showing that differnt types of memory are stored in differnt parts of the brain.
E:**Tulving et al **got ppts to preform tasks while scanning their brain. EM and SM are in the prefrontal cortex.
E:Show that there is a physical reality to the differnt types of LTMt
61
Why is real life application a strength of the type of LTM?
P:Neruoimaging evidence from brain studies showing that differnt types of memory are stored in differnt parts of the brain.
E:**Tulving et al **got ppts t preform tasks while scanning their brain. EM and SM are in the prefrontal cortex.
E:Show that there is a physical reality to the differnt types of LTMt
62
What is the working memory model?
A cognitive model that explains how information is temporarily stored and manipulated in STM.
63
What is the central executive?
The control centre.
64
What does the Central Executive do?
Monitors incoming data, makes decisions and allocates slave systems to tasks.
65
What is the phonological loop?
A component of the working memory model responsible for handling auditory and verbal information.
66
What is the phonological store?
A component of the WMM that is responsible for the temporary storage for the auditory information(speech based)
67
What does the phonological store do?
Stores words you can hear( inner ear)
68
What is the articulatory process?
A mental process of rehearsing verbal information sub vocally to keep it active in the short term memory.
69
What is the inner voice capacity?
2 seconds worth of what you can say.
70
What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
A component of the WMM responsible for temporary storing and manipulating visual and spatial information.
71
What is the visual cache?
A temporary storage area that holds information about the visual appearance of objects.
72
What is the inner scribe?
A component of the visuospatial sketchpad which handles spatial information and movement.
73
What is the capacity for the inner scribe?
3 OR 4 objects
74
What is episodic buffer?
Temporary storage space that integrates information from various components of working memory.
75
What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?
4 chunks capacity.
76
What is dual task performance?
The ability to execute two tasks simultaneously.
77
Why is clinical evidence a strength for the WMM?
P:One strength is supporting evidence
E:**Shallice and Warrington** study on KF(had a motor cycle accident which lead to poor STM ability for auditory info but better visual info)
-Recalling digits was better than reading then being read them.
-Bad phonological loop.
E:Supports separate STM stores.
78
Why is dual task performance a strength for the WMM?
P:One strength is the studies of dual talk performance.
E: **Baddeley et al** participants carried out visual and verbal tasks at the same time-> Data was simular when done separately. Both visual tasks- declined performance.
E:Shows there is a separate Sub system for verbal info and visual info.
79
Why is the lack of clarity over the central executive a limitation for the WMM?
P:Lack of clarity over central executive( Boss)
E: **Baddeley **'most impportant but least understood'
Needs to be more specific than attention
-could consist of separate subcomponents
E:Unsatisfactory components which challenges the integrity of the WMM
80
What is interference?
The retrieval of stored information is impaired due to the presence of other simular information.
81
What is proactive interference?
The phenomenon where old information stored in the memory hinders the recall or learning of new information.
82
What is retroactive interference?
The phenomenon where learning new information impairs the ability to recall previously learned information
83
Who investigated interference as an explaination for forgetting?
McGeoch and McDonald.
84
What was the procedure of McGeoch and McDonald?
Participants had to learn 16 words till they could remember with 100% accuracy. Learnt new list.
Group 1-Synonyms
Group 2-Antonyms
Group 3-Words unrelated to former
Group 4-Consonant syllables
Group 5-3 digit numbers
Group 6-No new group(rested)
85
What were the findings of McGeoch and Mcdonald's study of effect of similarity?
When asked to recall OG group of words. The synonyms were the worst to recall.
Interference is strongest when memories are simular .
86
What were the explaination of McGeoch and McDonald's findings?
Similarity effects may be because of PI or RI
87
Why is evidence from lab studies a strength for interference as an explaination for forgetting?
P: Thousands of evidence from lab studies.
E:Most of the studies show that both types of interference are common ways we forget information from LTM Eg**McGeoch and McDonald.**
E:Lab experiments control effects of irrelevant influence and gives us valid explaination for some forgetting.
88
Why is artificial materials a limitation for interference as an explaination for forgetting?
P:There is a greater chance at interference being demonstrated in the lab than IRL.
E:Word lists are used for remembering which is far from what we remember in everyday life.
E:Artificial tasks makes interference more likely in a lab.
Might not be likely explaination in everyday
89
Why is real life studies a strength for inference as an explaination for forgetting?
P:Real life studies
E:**Baddeley and Hitch** researched if interference was a better explaination than the passage of time.
-Asked rugby players to remember teams they've played week by week.
Accurate recall did not depend on time but the number of matches they played since.
E:Interferenace can apply to every day situations.
90
Define Retrieval failure.
Occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access a memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
91
Define cue.
A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory. Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning.
92
Define Encoding specificity principle.
Recall is better when the cues that were present when we learnt something are also present when we recall it.
93
Define context dependant forgetting,
Recall is worse when in a different environment to the one where learning took place.
94
Define state dependant forgetting.
Recall is worse when a person’s physical or psychological state is different from when learning took place
95
Who discovered the Encoding specificity principle?
Tulving.
96
What happens when the cues are absent in remembering?
There will be forgetting
97
Who did research into the context-dependant forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley
98
What did Godden and Baddeley do to research context dependant forgetting?
They gave divers a list of words to learn either on land or underwater.
Conditions: Learn on land -> recall on land
Learn on land-> Recall in water
Learn underwater-> recall underwater
Learn underwater-> recall on land.
99
What were Godden and Baddeley's findings?
They found that 40% accurate is lower in non matching conditions.
100
What were the conclusions to Godden and Baddeley's findings?
When the external cues available during learning are not available during recall, this leads to retrieval failure.
101
Who did research on state dependant forgetting?
Carter and Cassaday
102
What did Carter and Cassaday do to research state dependant forgetting?
They gave antihistamines to their participants which gave them a drowsy effect( an internal physiological state)
Gave them lines of words to learn and recall
Conditions:
Learn on drug-> recall on drug
Learn on drug -> Recall with no drug
Learn with no drug-> recall with no drug
Learn with no drug-> recall with drug
103
What were Carter and Cassaday's findings?
-Recall was higher in the conditions where the state matched
-Accurate recall was significantly worse when the internal state was different
104
What were the conclusions of Carter and Cassaday's findings?
Internal state can act as a cue and when this is different at the time of learning and recall it can result in retrieval failure.
105
What are the strengths for retrieval failure as an explaination for forgetting?
Supporting evidence
106
Why is supporting evidence a strength for retrieval failure as an explaination for forgetting?
P: There is a range of research which supports retrieval failure explaination.
E:Studies by** Baddeley, Tulving**
**Eysneck** ( researcher in memory) argues that retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting from LTM.
E: Real life scenarios eg Going upstairs and then you remember to bring an object upstairs. You go down stairs you forget the object. You go upstairs you remember the object.
E:Supporting evidence increases validity of an explaination. Evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs in real life situations and lab conditions.
107
What are the limitations for retrieval failure as an explaination for forgetting?
Questioning Context Effects and Recall vs recognition.
108
Why is questioning context effects a limitation for retrieval failure as an explaination for forgetting?
P: Contexts are not strong
E:**Baddeley** argues that differnt contexts have to be differnt before an effect is seen. Eg as differnt as water and land but a room and another can not result in forgetting as they are not differnt enough
E:Real life application of retrieval failure due to contextual cues dont explain much forgetting.
109
Why is Recall vs Recognition a limitation for retrieval failure as an explaination for forgetting?
P:Context effect may be related to the kind of memory tested.
E:**Godden and Baddeley** replicated underwater experiment with recognition and asked if they recognised a word from the list. Context dependant effect -> no difference between conditions before and after.
E:Pressure or absence of cues effected memory when you test it in a certain way.
110
Define Eyewitness testimony.
The ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents and crimes which they themselves have observed.
111
Define Misleading information:
Inaccurate information presented to an individual, often after an event that can influence memory and recall.
112
What are leading questions?
Questions that point to a certain answer because of how they are phrased.
113
What is responding bias?
The wording of leading questions influences the way people answer but doesn’t change the memory itself.
114
What is substitution explaination?
The wording of a leading question actually changes the participant’s memory of an event.
115
What is post event discussion?
When co-witnesses talk about the event with each other, this can contaminate EWT.
116
What is Source monitoring theory?
Distorts original memories because witnesses confuse what they actually saw with what they subsequently heard as they do not remember where the information came from. This is known as source confusion.
117
What is the conformity theory?
Eyewitnesses go along with other witness testimonies.
118
Who studies the effects of leading questions?
Loftus and Palmer.
119
What did Loftus and Palmer do to study the effects of leading questions?
They got 5 groups of participants to watch a clip of a car crash and gave them a question' How fast were the cars going when they ___?'
The gaps had differnt verbs suggesting the speed that they were going at.
120
What were the findings of Loftus and Palmers study?
Groups give verbs like 'Smashed' estimated that the speed was higher (40.5 mph)
And groups that were given verbs like 'Contacted' estimated the speed was lower (32.8 mph)
121
What were the conclusions of Loftus and Palmer's study?
That it depends on the wording of the question in which influences their awnser
122
Why do leading questions effect EWT?
Due to the Response Bias- that the questions effects the answering but not the memory.
OR Due to the substitution explaination- where the wording changes the answering and the memory of the clip( eg reporting seeing broken glass)
123
Who did research on post event discussion?
Fiona Gabbert et al
124
What did Gabbert do to research post even discussion?
She studied ppts in pairs. Making them watch a video on the same crime but from differnt points of view.( Eg one could see the title of the book of the victim)
125
What did Gabbert find?
She found that 71% of participants in discussion mistakenly recalled aspect of the event they did not see in the video but picked up in discussion
While No discussion - 0% inaccurate recall.
126
What are the strengths to misleading information research?
Useful in real life applications
127
Why is that mis leading is useful in real-life application a strength ?
P:Research into misleading information.
E: **Loftus** believes that leading questions can have a distorting effect on memory- > police need to be careful in what they say when interviewing EW
E: Research can make an important differnt by improving the way the legal system works.
128
What are the limitations to misleading information research?
The tasks are artificial and Individual differences.
129
Why is artificial tasks a limitation for misleading information research?
P: Loftus uses artificial footage not a real car crash.
E:Cips lack the stress of a real car crash- evidence shows emotion has an influence on memories
E:**Foster et al ** point out what you remember as an EW has some important consequences in the real world but not true in research studies.
E: Tell us that little about leading questions effect on EW in real life situations.
130
Why is individual differences a limitation for misleading information research?
P:Older people are less accurate than younger people with giving a EW report.
E:**Anastasi and Rhodes** found that younger people (18-45) was more accurate than older (53-78)
But All ages were more accurate identifying people of their own age.
E: Research studies use younger people to identify as they seem more accurate but this is not true.
131
What is own age bias?
The tendency for individuals to recognise and remember faces of their age group accurately than others.
132
What is anxiety?
Human emotion characterised by worry nervousness or unease about certain outcomes.
133
What is tunnel theory?
The narrowing of attention during stressful situations.
134
What is weapon focus?
Where witness to a crime tend to focus their attention on a weapon often to the detriment of their ability to recall other details of the event.
135
What is Yerkes-Dodson Law?
A principle in psychology that states performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, after which performance decreases if arousal is too high.
136
Who researched the negative effect of anxiety on recall?
Johnson and Scott.
137
What did Johnson and Scott do?
Asked participants to come in for a study into a waiting area.
Had to 2 conditions.
**Low anxiety condition**- After argument a man walks through the room with a pen and grease in his hands
**High Anxiety condition**- After argument + glass breaking a man walks through the room with a bloody knife.
The participant were asked to identify the man from 50 photos.
138
What were the findings of Johnson and Scott's study?
49% of the low anxiety condition were accurate
33% from the high anxiety condition were accurate.
139
What were the conclusions of Johnsons and Scott's study?
Anxiety negatively effects eye witness testimony.
140
Who researched the positive effect of anxiety on recall?
Yuille and Cutshall
141
What did Yuille and Cutshall do to research the positive effect of anxiety on recall?
They studied a real life shooting in Canada where the shop owner shot a thief dead.
21 witnesses-> 13 took part
They interviewed 4-5 months after.
Accuracy depended on the number of details reported.
Asked to Rate stress levels from 1-7
Emotional problems after the event.
142
What were the findings of Yuille and Cutshall and their research onthe positive effect of anxiety on recall?
Found accounts of the shoot were accurate and had little difference in accuracy after 5 months
-Highest levels of stress were more accurate 88%
-participants who reported less stress were less accurate- 75%
143
What were the effects of Yuille and Cutshall's findings?
Anxiety positively effects EW
144
What did Yerkes and Dodson find?
-Lower levels of Anxiety produces less accurate information
-Optimum levels of anxiety is reached which is the point of maximum accuracy
-If a EW experiances more stress than this their recall of the event declines.
145
What are the limitations of anxiety research?
-Weapon focus effect may not be relevant ---Field studies sometimes lack control
-There are ethical issues.
146
Why is weapon focus effect may not be relevant in research of anxiety?
P: Research has show that it might not be anxiety for focusing on the weapon but the surprise of seeing it.
E:Pickel conducted and experiment using scissors, raw chicken, a gun and a wallet in a hairdresser video. EW accuracy was lower for items you wouldn't see in a hair salon.
E: Another explaination for negatively effecting anxiety is that ppts may deliberately give another response that the researcher wants.
E:Shows that weapon focus is due to unusualness than anxiety which tells up nothing about the effects of anxiety on EW.
147
Why is lack of control of field studies a limitation for research of anxiety?
P:Field research is that research interveiw real life witnesses . Ew have some time after the event.
E: Researchers have no control of what thy do between. Eg look at articles on event.
- effects of anxiety may be overwhelmed by police interview etc which would make it hard to assess the witnesses.
E:These extraneous factors could be responsible for accuracy of recall.
148
Why is ethical issue a limitation for research of anxiety?
P: It creates anxiety in participants for the purpose of the research is ethically questionable
E: Challenges why they need the research in the first place Johnson and Scott .
We can take research from real life as anxiety is already present and doesnt need to be created.
P:Carry out cost benefit analysis
149
Define Cognitive interview.
A memory retrieval technique used to enhance the accuracy and detail of eye witness accounts.
150
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
A technique built upon the original interview by incorporating social and communicative elements to improve accuracy.
151
Why do we need a cognitive interview?
As Leading questions,Post-event discussion, Anxiety can affect EW
152
What are the 4 techniques in a cognitive interview?
**P**erspective is changed
**R**einstate the context
**O**rder
**D**etailed reporting
153
What is change of perspective ?
Witnesses are encouraged to recall events from other peoples perspective. To disrupt effect of expectations and effect schema.
154
What is a Reinstate the context?
Witnesses should return to the original crime scene and imagine the environment and their emotions.
155
What is Reverse the order?
Events should be recalled in a differnt order from original sequence to prevent people from reporting expectations of the event.
156
What is Detailed reporting?
Witness are encouraged to include every single detail no matter how irrelevant as it may trigger important memories.
157
Who developed the enhanced cognitive interview?
Fisher et al
158
What are additional elements to the ECI?
-Reducing eye contact
-minimising distractions
159
What are the strengths of the CI?
-Support for the effectiveness of the ECI
160
Why is support of effectiveness for CI a strength for the cognitive interview?
P:Evidence that it works
E:Meta analysis by Kohnken et al combined data from 53 studies comparing ST and CI
41% of accurate information was used using the CI and more information that standard interview
E:Effective technique
161
What are the limitations for the cognitive interview?
-Some elements may be more valuable than others
CI is time consuming
162
Why is that CI is time consuming a limitation for the CI?
P: Police officers may be reluctant to we CI as it takes training and time
E:More time is needed to establish a rapport with a witness CI requires special training.
E:The complete CI is not a realistic method for police officers and focus on key elements
163
Psycology
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