Psycology > Research Methods PART 2 > Flashcards

Research Methods PART 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A research technique the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce.

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2
Q

What is coding?

A

The stage of content analysis in which the communication to be studied in analysed by identifying each instance of the chose categories.

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3
Q

What is Thematic analysis

A

An inductive and qualitative research approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge more than once the data has been coded.

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4
Q

What data is content analysis turned into?

A

Qualitative to quantitative.

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5
Q

How to preform a content anysis?

A

1) Decide a research question
2) Select a sample-Form a larger quantity of all possible data
3) Coding- the researcher decides on categories /coding units to be recorded these are based on a question
4)Work through the data- Read the sample, tally the number of times the predetermined categories appear.
5)Data analysis- can be preformed on the quantitative data to look for patterns.

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6
Q

Why should coding units be operationalised?

A

To try reduce subjective interpretation.

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7
Q

How to carry out a thematic analysis?

A

1) Collect texts/recordings into texts through transcription
2) Read text first to spot patterns that can be coded and collected
3) Re read the transcriptions for emergent themes.

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8
Q

How can the research check the validity of a thematic analysis?

A

By collecting a new sample and seeing if the same theme comes up.

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9
Q

What are the strengths of content analysis?

A

-Avoids ethical issues
-Flexible

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10
Q

Why is avoiding ethics issues a strength of content analysis?

A

P:One strength of content analysis is that you can get around the ethical issues with psychological research.

E:Where a lot of the things psychologists want to study already exists in the public
domain ( eg newspapers)

E:This means that psychologists dont need permission to use it.

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11
Q

Why is flexibility a strength of content analysis?

A

P:One strength of content analysis is that it is a flexible method.
E:it can produce qualitative data and quantitative data depending on what is required.
E:This can be adapted to the aims of the research.

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12
Q

What are the limitations of content analysis?

A

Problems with studying people indirectly.

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13
Q

Why is studding people indirectly a limitation for content analysis?

A

P:Where communications are studied out of contest so the research can point out motivations of the writer that were not intended.
E:This lacks objectivity as more descriptive forms ( thematic analysis) are used.

E: This can create bias to create invalidity.

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14
Q

What method can be used to address objectivity?

A

Reflexivity. Which makes researchers clear on how their biases can effect the research process and should reference this in their report.

Personal view points are important part of the data.

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15
Q

What is a case study?

A

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event.

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16
Q

What data does case studies produce?

A

Qualitative data.

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17
Q

What is triangulation?

A

Taking data from atleast two sources and checking if they agree. Either observation, survey or interview.

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18
Q

What happens when the two sources from triangulation agree?

A

The data is valid as they are measuring what they claim to measure.

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19
Q

How is triangulation reliable?

A

As they are collecting same data using differnt methods.

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20
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

Research that takes place over a long period of time than a moment.

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21
Q

What do longitudinal studies contain?

A

Gathering data from family and friends and tracking developmental changes.

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22
Q

What is a strength of case studies?

A

P:One strength off case studies is that provide rich detailed insights.
E:This is preferable to more superficial form of data collected for an experiment assessing one aspect of behaviour at one moment in time.
E:The detail increases validity of the data collected.

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23
Q

Why is case studies contribution to understanding of the norm a strength of case studies?

A

P:One strength is that case studies may contribute to our understanding of normal functioning.
E:Eg HM was significant to understanding the STM sperate memory stores.
E:Case studies unusual behaviour may generate hypothesis for future study and solidary contradictory information can lead to an entire theory.

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24
Q

Why is memory inaccuracy a limitation to case studies?

A

P:One limitation of case studies is that they include account of family/friends which can include inaccuracy and memory decay
E:This is more present if childhood stories are being told.
-conclusions are based off subjective research interpretation
E:This means that the evidence from case studies could have low validity.

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25
Define reliability.
A measure of consistency if a particular measurement can be repeated and consistent then that measurement is described as reliable.
26
What can you expect if a subject is reliable?
That you expect the same result everytime unless the subject has changed
27
What is test retest?
It is the most straightforward way of testing reliability.
28
What does the test retest involve?
Administering the test/questionnaire to the same people on differnt occasions.
29
If the results are reliable what should happen each time they are tested?
The results should be the same or simular.
30
Why must there be sufficient time between the test and retest?
The two sets of scores will be correlated to make sure they are simular. If it is significant and positive then it is said to have good reliability. (+0.80)
31
Why is interrater reliability good?
One researchers interpretation of even may differ widely from someone else's this introduces subjectivity, bias and unreliability into the data collection process.
32
Why should a pilot study be done to test interrater reliability?
As it ensures that the observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way or compare notes.
33
Why should the data be analysed from observers of the same event?
To correlate and assess its reliability (should be 0.80)
34
How to improve reliability in questionnaires?
By the test retest method. If the questionnaire has low reliability some items can be deselected or rewritten. Some open questions can be replaced with closed so there is less room of misinterpretation.
35
How to improve reliability in interviews?
-By using the same interview each time - train interviewers if not possible to use the same one. Don't ask leading/ambiguous questions -If appropriate use structure interview to control interviewers behaviours .
36
How to improve reliability in experiments?
Lab experiments have high control over many aspects of the procedure, including the instructions given to the ppts. -replicate
37
How to improve reliability in observations?
-Make sure behavioural categories are properly operationalised -categories should not overlap
38
Define validity.
-Measuring something accurately and genuine. -Managed to measure what they intend to measure.
39
Define internal validity.
Whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor.
40
Define external validity.
Relates to the factors outside the investigation such as generalising to other settings population and eras.
41
What is ecological validity?
Whether the behaviour being measured is like it would be in real life.
42
Define temporal validity?
Whether the findings from a particular study or concepts from a particular theory hold true over time.
43
Define face validity.
Looks at whether a measure/scale/test on the face of it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. This can be determined by eyeballing or passing it to an expert to check.
44
Define concurrent validity.
Where the results obtained from a test/measure are compared to an already existing, recognised and well established test.
45
What concludes a high concurrent validity?
Close agreement between the two sets of data.
46
How do you improve validity in experimental research?
-Using a control group means the researcher is better able to assess whether changes are true and due to the IV. -Standardising procedures minimize the impact of ppt reactivity and investigator effects -Use of single and double blind procedures reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.
47
How do you improve validity in qualitative methods?
-Depth of detail reflects the ppts reality -Interpretive validity must be demonstrated. The extent to which the researchers interpretation of even matches the ppts. -This can be demonstrated through the coherence of the reporting and use of direct quotes from ppts in report -Use triangulation
48
How to improve validity in observations?
Using covert observations means the behaviour observed is likely to be natural. -Use specific behaviour catagories.
49
How to improve validity in questionnaires?
-Incorporate a lie scale within the questions to assess consistency and control of effects of social desirability -Make questionnaire anonymous
50
Define probability.
A measure of the likelihood that a articular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty.
51
Define significance.
A statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A significant result that we reject the null hypothesis
52
Define critical value.
When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis.
53
Define Type 1 error.
accepting the alternate hypothesis and believing that you have found significance when you actually have not. (false positive)
54
Define Type 2 error
The failure to reject a false null hypothesis. ( false negative)
55
Define null hypothesis.
A statement that claims there is not significant difference or relationship between two variables or data sets.
56
How do you know whenever the hypothesis is directional?
Based on how confident the research is on the outcome.
57
What do stats work on?
probability than certainty.
58
What is the usual level of significance?
0.05/5%
59
What happens when two tailed tests are used?
The probability level doubles.
60
What is the rule of r?
A way to remember which tests need the calculated value to be greater than the critical value which need it to be less.
61
What happens when the statistical test has an r in the name?
The calculated value must be equal or more than the critical value to be significant.
62
What happens when the statistical test doesn't have an R in the name?
The calculated value must be equal or less than the critical value to be significant.
63
What are the steps to choosing a significant test?
1)Whenever the researcher is looking for a difference or correlation 2) Type of experimental design 3)Levels of measurement
64
What is unrelated data?
Whenever the experiment uses unrepentant groups
65
What is related data?
Whenever the data has matched pairs or repeated measures.
66
What is nominal data?
Data presented in the form of categories - can appear on bar charts eg. boy, car, truck, train -discrete data
67
What is interval data?
Based on numerical scales that includes units of equal -more detail is preserved -units of measurement eg.cm, Kg, seconds.
68
What is ordinal data?
Data that is presented in some ordered way( eg. a rating scale of how much you like some thing) -Non equal intervals (eg. someone's who puts 8 does not necessarily like exactly twice as much) -subjective
69
What is a parametric test?
More powerful and robust than other tests. This can be able to detect significance within data better and reduces type II errors.
70
What must be met to use a parametric test?
-The data must be interval level- raw scores than ranks -Data should be drawn from a population with a normal distribution- no skewed data -Homogeneity of variance the set of scores in each condition should have similar dispersion.
71
What are the parametric tests?
unrelated t-test, related t-test, persons.
72
What are the justifications for using a **Sign test**?
-Looking for a difference between two conditions -Looking at related data -nominal data
73
What are the justifications for using a **Mann-Whitney U test**
-At least ordinal data -Used to look for a difference -Unrelated-> independent group designs
74
What are the justifications for the **Wilcoxon Test**?
-At least ordinal data -Looking for a difference -Related data(repeated measures)
75
What are the **Unrelated t-test**?
-interval level data -Looking for a difference -unrelated data
76
What are the justifications of the **related t-test**?
-At least interval data -Looking for a difference -Related data
77
What are the justifications for using *Spearman's rho test**?
-ordinal data -looking for a correlation
78
What are the justifications for using a **Pearson's r test**?
-interval data -looking for a correlation
79
What are the justifications for using a **Chi squared test**?
-At least nominal data -Unrelated data -looking for either a correlation or a difference.
80
How to work out the degrees of freedom for independent groups?
N-2
81
How to work out the degrees of freedom for matched pairs?
number of pairs-1
82
How to work out the degrees of freedom for repeated measures?
N-1
83
How to work out the degrees of freedom for a correlation?
N-2(1 per co variable)
84
What are the three sections of a psychological report?
Abstract, introduction, Method
85
What is abstract?
The abstract is the first section in the journal article.
86
How long is the abstract?
A short summary (150-200) words
87
What does the abstract contain?
A snap shot of all the major elements of the research -hypothesis -Aim -Method/procedure -results -conclusions
88
Why is there a abstract?
As journal articles are very long. psychologists can read lots of relevant abstracts when researching to identify which investigations are worthy of further examination.
89
What is the introduction?
A literature for review of the general area of investigation detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies related to the study.
90
How should the introduction be laid out?
The beginning should be broad and gradually start becoming more specific until aims and hypotheses are present.
91
What should the method contain?
Should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to precisely replicate the study. -Design -sample -apparats -procedure -ethics
92
What is the results section in a psychological report?
Should summaries the key findings from te investigation
93
What should the results section in a psychological report contain?
Descriptive statistics-Graphs, tables, charts Inferential statistics- choice of statistical test Raw data in appendix
94
What happens when the researcher uses qualitative methods?
The results will involve in analysis of themes and categories?
95
What are the key elements of the discussion section?
-Summary of the results in verbal than statistical form. -Discussion of results in context of the evidence from introduction. -Discussion of the limitations of the study -discussion of the wider implications of the study
96
Why is referencing important?
So the full details of the source is included and reference any material they mention in their report.
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