1
Q
Under what circumstances would you choose a directional hypothesis?
A
When previous research has been done.
2
Q
Define Demand characteristics
A
When participants look for clues to discover the aim of the experiment and may change their behaviour accordingly.
3
Q
Random allocation Steps.
A
1) Assign each participant a number to anonymise them.
2)Put numbers in a hat/lottery method
3)Pull names out alternatively till you have correct numbers of participants in each condition.
4
Q
Define Hypothesis
A
This is your prediction about what you will find it is a testable statement.
5
Q
Define Aim
A
A statements that describes the purpose of your investigation.
6
Q
What are the demand characteristics?
A
Please you- please the experiment
screw you- sabotage experiment.
behaviour no longer normal
7
Q
Operationalisation of variables
A
Narrowing down a broad concept into a format that it can be tested in (making it measurable)
8
Q
Define research question
A
This is your ideas of what you what to test
9
Q
Define Paradigm
A
A shared set of assumptions and methods.
10
Q
Define naïve participant
A
A participant who is unaware of the research
11
Q
Define extraneous variable
A
Any variable not being investigated that has the potential to affect the outcome of a research study.
eg.lighting
12
Q
Define Confounding variable
A
Influences that interfere with an accurate measurement between the IV and DV.
13
Q
Define investigator effects
A
Unwanted influence of the investigator on the research.
14
Q
What is a paradigm shift
A
The result of a scientific revolution a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
15
Q
Define non directional hypothesis
A
Statement that does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship of the 2 variables.
16
Q
Define objectivity
A
To base judgements on external data rather than person feelings (bias)
17
Q
What is the empirical method
A
The use of quantitative observation in order to test or refine a theory.
18
Q
What is replicability
A
The study should be consistent to produce the same results.
19
Q
Define Falsifiability.
A
The capacity for some proposition statement, theory or hypothesis to be proven wrong.
20
Q
Define randomisation
A
This is the use of chance to reduce the researchers influence on the design of the investigation.
21
Q
What is standardisation
A
When all participants go through the same experience
22
Q
What are the types of experimental design?
A
-Independent groups
-Repeated measures
-Matched pairs
23
Q
What is independent groups?
A
Where separate groups of participants experience different condition. Each participant will experience on level of the IV.
24
Q
What is repeated measures?
A
Where all the participant go through all the conditions.
25
What is matched pairs?
Participants are paired together on relevant variables to the experiment. One participant form each pair is allocated to a different condition of the experiment.
26
What is counter balancing?
Controlling order effects in repeated measures.
One group of participants are split in half, each participant does all conditions but half of the participants does condition A first then condition B vice versa.
27
What are lab experiments?
Takes place in a controlled environment. The researcher controls the IV and record the DV while maintaining the EV
28
What are strengths of lab experiments?
-Control of extraneous variables
-Replications is more possible
-internal validity high
-DV most likely because of IV
29
What are the weakness of Lab experiments?
-Lack of generalisability
-Lack of external validity( low mundane realism)
-more chance of development of demand characteristics
30
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting( tube) which the researcher can manipulate the IV and record the DV.
31
What are the advantages of field experiments?
-mundane realism
-produces behaviour that is more valid
-high external validity
32
What are the disadvantages of field experiments?
-no control of extraneous variables
-ethical issues- no consent/privacy
33
What are natural experiments?
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought by the researcher by would've happened even if the research was not there.- record effect of DV
34
What are the disadvantages of field experiments?
-These opportunities are rare
-ethical issues
-pre existing sample bias
35
What are the advantages of field experiments?
-Provides opportunities for research
-High external validity
36
What are quasi experiments?
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients: IV not determined by anyone (do not exist).
37
What are advantages of quasi experiments?
-more generalisable
-can be done under lab conditions.
-less expensive
38
What is Random sampling?
a technique where all members have an equal chance of being selected.
39
What is opportunity sampling
Choosing anyone that is available and willing to take part.
40
what is systematic sampling?
Every nth person
41
What is volenteer sampling?
Participants willingly partate in the experiment by a advertisement. eg- poster.
42
What are disadvantages of quasi experiments
-lack of randomisation
-ethical issues
-confounding variables
-can not randomly allocate participants and there might be confounding variables.
43
What is stratified sampling?
Researcher divide groups into sub groups based on characteristics that they share
44
What are the advantages of random sampling?
-Avoids bias from the researcher
-Everyone is given an equal chance to be chosen
-quick to organise
45
What are the disadvantages of random sampling?
-Not representative
-difficult to gain access to to a large population
46
What does random allocation help with?
It helps with participant variables in an independent group design.
47
What are the advantages of Independent groups?
-Participants are less likely to guess the aim and less likely to produce demand characteristics.
-Participants wont get fatigued by second condition.
48
What are the disadvantages of Independent groups?
-People are not the same( Iv might be affected because of participant variables than IV)
-Less economical ( need two sets of people than just one)
49
What are the advantages of Repeated measures?
-Control of participant variables are you are comparing each person with themselves
-One group (economical)
50
What are the disadvantages of Repeated measures?
-Order effects- repeating tasks might cause boredom
-repeating skills might produce better performance in second task due to practice.
51
What are the advantages of Matched pairs?
-Participants only do one condition( no order effects or demand characteristics)
-Matched on variables so participant variables are less of a problem.
52
What are disadvantages of Matched pairs?
-Participants are never matched exactly as they have individual differences.
-Time consuming and expensive( if using personality test)
53
What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?
-Convenient and saves the researcher time, effort and money
54
What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
-research bias
-the participants may not take part
-unrepresentative
-willing and keep participants which will make it not generalised.
55
What are the advantages of systematic sampling?
-avoids researcher bias
-usually fairly representative
56
What are the dis advantages of systematic sampling?
-The participants may not take part
-Difficult and time consuming
57
What are the advantages of volunteer sampling?
-Free from researcher bias
-Convenient and saves the researcher time and money
-requires minimal input from researcher
58
What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
-May attract a certain type of person who is helpful, keep and curious which is less generalising
-Unrepresentative as drawn from a specific area.
59
What are the advantages of stratified sampling?
-Free from researcher bias
-accurate representation as it reflects the composition of the population.( generalisation is possible)
60
What are the dis-advantages of stratified sampling?
-Does not account for all the different ways people differ.
-difficult and time consuming to conduct
-the participants may not want to take part
61
What is the code of ethics?
It is ethical guidelines instructing psychologists in the UK what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants created by the British Psychological Society(BPS).
Chosen by a cost benefit analysis to determine if ethical or not.
62
What are the ethical issues?
Can Do Can't Do With Participants.
Consent
Deception
Confidentiality
Debrief
Withdrawal
Protection from harm.
63
Define Informed Consent.
The clients right to know the aims of the research, the procedures , their rights (including the right to withdrawal), what their data with be used for.
64
Define Deception.
When the researcher gives false information to participants or intentionally misleads them about key information.
65
Define Confidentiality.
When the researcher keeps information private about the participants ( prevents identities of participants from being revealed). Underneath the Data protection Act.
66
Define a debrief and what should be included in it.
At the end of the study there should be a full debrief.
Should include:
-True aims of the investigation
-Any info withheld during the study (eg other conditions)
-Reassurance that the behaviour was normal
-What the date will be used for
-Reminder their right to withdrawal
- Their right to provided counselling
67
Define Protection From Harm.
The participants should not be put in any risk than their daily lives and should be protected under psychological and physical harm( embarrassment, frighten, offend or harm).
68
Define Consent Form/Letter
A document that includes all the relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.
69
What is Presumptive Consent?
Rather than getting consent from the sample, a similar group of people is asked if the study is acceptable or not. If agreed it is 'presumed' that the participants consent is given.
70
What is Prior General Consent?
Participants are given their consent to take part in a number of events and one which will involve deception. They are effectively consenting to being deceived.
71
What is Retrospective Consent?
They are asked for consent during the debriefing.
72
How do you deal with deception?
At the end of the study there is a debrief were the researcher explains any details not supplied during or before the study
73
How do you deal with protection from harm?
The participants have the right to with hold data and withdrawal from the data. They are also have rights to get counselling provided by the researcher.
74
How do you deal with confidentiality?
The personal details are private but normally the participants are anonymised with numbers or initials.
75
What is a pilot study?
A small scale practice run of the actual experiment. To check procedures, materials for faults and then to make modifications.
76
Why should you pilot study experiments?
To road test the procedure to ensure it runs smoothly.
77
Why should you pilot study observations?
It is a good way to check coding systems and behaviour categories.
78
Why should you pilot study questionnaires?
To try out questions and reword or remove ambiguous questions.
79
Why should you do a pilot study?
To save money and time in the long run.
80
What is a single blind trial?
The participants are not being told the aim of the study and do not know what condition they are in.
81
Why do we use a single blind trial?
To control demand characteristics.
82
What is a double blind trial?
Where neither the participants nor the researcher know the aim of the experiment, only the third part know the purpose.
83
What is double blind trials commonly used for?
Drug Trials
84
Why do we use double blind trials?
To control investigator effects.
85
What are control groups used for?
For the purpose of comparison. To conclude that is it because of the IV.
86
What is a controlled observation?
A method where researchers watch participants in a contained environment.
87
Define population.
All individuals who share particular characteristics and can be considered as part of a larger group.
88
Define Generalisation.
Application to the results from a study to the wider target population.
89
What is a naturalistic observation?
A method used to accurately observe and record behavior in the environment in which it normally occurs.
90
What is covert observation?
A technique when the researcher is 'undercover' the participants are unaware they are being observer and no consent is given
91
What is Overt Observation?
The participants aknowledge they are being observed.
92
What is participant observation?
The researcher is immersed in the experiment with the participants.
93
What are behavior categories ?
Specific actions which can be observed and recorded as examples of the target behaviour.
94
What are the advantages of natralistic observation?
-high external validity
-findings can be generalised to real life
95
What are the disadvantages of naturalistic observation?
-Lack of control makes replication difficult
-uncontrolled extraneous variables
96
What are the advantages of controlled observation?
-fewer extraneous variables so replication is more possible.
-can observe participants responses to specific situations
97
What are the disadvantages of controlled observations?
Findings cannot be readilycbe applied to real life
98
What are the advantages of covert observation?
-Limited particiapnt reactivity so observed behaviour will be natural
-high validity
99
What are the disadvantages of covert observation?
Ethics issues( in consent)
100
What are the advantages of overt observation?
Ethically acceptable informed consent
101
What are the disadvantages of overt observation?
-the knowledge of them being watched may affect the participants behaviour.
102
What are the advantages of participant observation?
the researcher can experience the situation as the participants do give them increased insight
103
What are the disadvantages of particiant observation?
The researcher may loose objectivity going native
104
What are the advantages of non participant observation?
The researcher can maintain an objective psycological distance.
105
What are the disadvantages of non participant observation?
They may lose valuble insight as far too removed.
106
What is an unstructured design observation? and when should it be used
The researcher wants to record everything they see and then produce accounts of detail.
When it is an observation with few participants.
107
What is a structured design? and when is it appropriate to be used?
When the researcher used a pre determined list of behaviours to quantify the observations.
It is appropriate to use when there is alot of participants for the researcher to record it.
108
What are the advantages of structured design?
-The date is numerical which can be analysed easily
-Has objective behavioural catagories so no researcher bias.
109
What are the disadvantages or structured design?
No detail
110
What are the advantages of unstructured design?
Greater detail in data.
111
What are the disadvantages of unstrucuted design?
-Produces qualitative data which is more harder to anylse.
-greater risk of researcher bias- write behaviours that catch their eye.
112
Why are behavioural catagories used?
As it can be used as a record.
113
What do target behaviours need to be?
-Be clear( not require any interprestations)
-Observable and measurable
-All possible forms should be catagorized
-No overlaps of catagories.
114
What are the types of sampling methods (observational design)?
Continuous recording
Event sampling
Time sampling
115
What is continuous recording?
All instances of the target behaviour are recorded.
116
What is Event sampling?
Tallying each behaviour catagory during an observational period.
117
What is Time Sampling?
Recording behaviour in pre established intervals in a observation period.
118
What are the advantages of event sampling?
Useful when target behaviour is infrequent
119
What are the disadvantages of event sampling?
If event is too complex the observer may overlook the important details.
120
What are the advantages of Time sampling?
Effective when reducing the number of obseravtions that need to be made.
121
What are the disadvantages of time sampling?
Behaviour samples may not be representative of observation as whole.
122
What are questionaires?
A set of pre written questions to access a persons thoughts or experiances.
123
Why are questionaires used ?
To either be standalone research or part of an experiment to assess DV.
124
What are open questions?
When the questions do not have a fixed range of awnsers an the participant may respond how they want.
125
What are closed questions?
Questions that have a fixed number of responses.
126
What are the advantages of open questions?
The participant is able to respond with a valid awnser.
127
What are the disadvantages of open questions?
-Not easy to analyse
-some people might write long awnsers
128
What data does closed questions create?
Quantitative data.
129
What data does Open Questions create?
Qualitative data rich in detail.
130
what are the advantages of closed questions?
-easy to analyse and quantify
-takes less time to awnser so it increases response time awnser
131
What are the disadvantages of closed questions?
-No options for participants to expand on their awnsers
-The options are limited and may not relfect on what the people feel/think/did.
132
What is a Likert scale?
A scaling method measuring either positive or negative response to the statement.
133
What is a rating scales?
a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative or qualitative attribute.
134
what type of closed questions are there?
-likert scales
-rating scales
-fixed choice options
135
What are fixed choice options?
Options to limit responses
136
What is acquiescence bias?
When the individuals are likely to agree regardless of how they actully feel.
137
How is acquiscence bias defied?
Half the questions would be written in a negative way. If the participants would have looked at the question they would have opposite results.
138
What are the advantages of questionaires?(5)
-Cost effective
-Can be completes without the researching being present
-reduced effort for the researcher
-easy to analyse
-quantitative data lends itself to statistical anaylsis
139
What are the disadvantages of questionaires?
-Responses may not be truthful
-demand characteristics
-social desirability bias
-acquiescence bias
140
What is social desirability bias?
The tendency to not take undesirable attitudes and then to over take more desirable attitudes.
141
What is an interview?
A live entcounter where the interviewer askes a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts/experiances.
142
What is a structured interview?
A set of pre determined set of questions that are in a fixed order. (The interviewer askes the questions waits for a response and records the awnsers)
143
What is a unstructured interview?
No set of questions, just an aim or topic of what will be discussed.The interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their awnsers.
144
What is the advantages of a structured interview
Straightforward to replicate and analyse due to their standardiesed format.
145
What are the disadvantages of an structured interview?
Not possible for the participants to elaborate which can lead to insightful results.
146
What are the advantages of unstructed interviews?
More flexibility- the interview can create follow up points so it is more likely to get rich insights.
147
What are the disadvantages of unstructured interviews?
Analysis is dificult which makes it hard to draw conclusions.
-Risk that interviewees lies due to social desirability.( can be over come buy building a rapport( a professional bond))
148
What can be used instead of a structured or unstructured interview?
Semi-Structured-A list of question that have been worked out in advanced and the interviewer is able to ask follow up questions.
149
What should you do when designing a interview?(7)
-An interview schedule
-standardised
-interview should toake notes or record the interview
-1on 1 of in groups
-quiet room from other peoples influnces
-begin with neutral questions to make the particiapant more comfortable.
-remind participants that their awnsers must be treated with confidence.
150
What is bad for writing questions?
-Jargon
-Emotive language and leading questions
-Double barrelled questions and double negatives
151
What is Jargon?
It is technical terms that are familiar to people within a specialised field.
152
What is emotive language?
The authors attitudes towards a certain topic which can be seen through the wording of the questions.
153
What is a double barrel question?
Questions that contains two questions in one. (Particiapants can agree with one but disagree with the other)
154
What is a leading question?
A question tgat guides the respondent towards a particular awnser.
155
What is a double negative question?
A question that has 2 negative which can be difficult for the respondant to decipher.
156
What is Qualitative data?
Data expressed in words
157
What is Quantitative data?
Data expressed numerically.
158
What can Qualitative be a form of?
Written description of thought/feelings/opinions/experiances.
159
What are the advantages of qualitative data?
-Richness of data
-Gives participant development in thoughts /feelings/ experiances
-High external validity which gives the researcher more insight in participants world view
160
What are the disadvantages of qualitative data?
-It is difficult to anaylse and hard to identify
-Prone to subject interpretation as can chose what might sound interesting to compare.
161
What are the advantages of Quantatitive Data?
-simple to analyse
-Objective- less open to bias
162
What are the disadvantages of quantitative data?
It is narrow in scope- it fails to represent 'real life'.
163
What are the differences of qualitative data and quantitative data
-How data is presented
-Validity- real life represenation
164
What is primary data?
Original data that has been collected specifically for purpose of investigation by the researcher.
165
What types of ways is primary data collected?
Interviews/Questionaires/experiments/observations
166
What is Secondary Data?
Data collected from someone other than the researcher.
167
What are the advantages of priamary data?
-Fits its Job- authentic
-Specifically targets the information that the researcher requires.
168
What are the disadvantages of Primary data?
-Requires alot of time and effort(planning,resources+ preparations)
169
What are the advantages of secondary data?
-it is inexpansive and easily accessed
-The information already exists
170
What is are the disadvantages of secondary data?
- variation in quality
-Accuracy of data
-The information may be out of date or incomplete
-may not match researchers needs
171
What are the measures of central tendancy?
mean, median and mode
172
How to measure mean?
Adding up all values in a set of data and dividing by the number of value there are.
173
What are the advantages of the mean?
-most representative as it includes all data.
174
What are the disadvantages of the mean?
Easily disorted by extreme values and can become unrepresentative.
175
How to calculate the median?
Arranging the values in a set of data from lowest to highest and picking the central value.
176
What is the advantages of the median?
-extreme scores do not affect it.
-easy to calculate
177
What are the disadvantages of the median?
Less sensitive so not all scores are included.
178
How to calculate the mode?
The most frequent occuring value in a set of data.
179
What are the advantages of the mode?
Sometimes it is the only average available (eg with data in catagories)
180
What are the disadvantages of the mode?
Quite a crude measure, doesnt usually represent the whole data set.
181
What are the measures of dispersion?
The range and standard deviation.
182
How to calculate the range?
Subtract the lowest value from the highest value and add 1( as mathmatical correction).
183
What are the advantages of the range?
Easy to calculate.
184
What are the disadvantages of the range
-only takes into account the two extreme values so many not be representative of the whole data set.
185
How to calculate standard deviation?
Tells us how far scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score( dividing by # of scores)
186
What are the advantages of standard deviation?
Much more percise than the range as it includes all the values in the calculations.
187
What are the disadvantages of standard deviation?
It can be disorted by a single extreme value.
188
What is meta-analysis?
'research about research'
Combining results from multiple studies to provide and overall view.
189
What are the types of experiment?
-Lab experiment
-Field Experiment
-Natural Experiment
-Quasi Experiment
190
What are the experimental design?
-Independent groups
-Repeated measures
-Matched pairs
191
What do you need for a graph?
-title
-clearly labled axies
-appropriate scale
-appropriately plotted data
192
What data does a bar chart show?
-Bar charts are used when data is divided into CATAGORIES-discrete data(data can not appear in more than one category)
193
What data does scattergram/graph show?
-Used to display correlations
194
What is plotted on the x and y axis in a bar chart?
-catagories are plotted along the x axis
-Frequency is plotted along y axis
-the bars DONT touch
195
What is on the x and y axis in a scattergraph?
On the x axis one co variable
on the y axis is the other co variable
-needs 'relationship' in title
196
What data does line graphs show?
-it shows continuous data
to show how something changes over time.
197
What are on x and y axis in a line graph?
Thr iv is plotted on the x axis and the Dv is plotted on the y axis
198
What data does histograms show?
Continuous data rather than discrete data(multiple levels of one catagory)
199
What do the x and y axis shows on a histogram?
-The x axis is made up of equal sized intervals of a single catagory
-the y axis shows the frequency of each interval.
200
What is the shape of normal distribution graph?
When you measure certain variables, the frequency of these measurements should form a bell-shaped curve
201
Where is the median and mean and mode located in a normal distribution graph ?
They occupy the aame mid point of the curve.
202
Where are most people located on a normal distribution graph?
At the middle and very few people at the extreme ends.
203
What is a positive skew distribution?
Where most of the distribution is concentrated on the left of the graph resulting in a **long tail on the right**.
204
Where is the mode, mean, and median in a positive skew?
Mode: remains at the highests point of the peak
median is next
mean: is dragged across the right
205
What changes the values of the skew?
extreme values
206
What is a negative skew?
Where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the right of the graph, resulting in **a long tail on the left**.
207
Where is the mode , mean and the median on a negative skrew?
Mode:remains at the highest point of the peak
median:next
mean: dragged across to the left
208
Defenition of distributions?
How results within a population are distributed.
209
What is the aim of science and publication of journal articles?
Psycologists disseminate(spread around) their research among the psycology community via texbooks,academic journals, conferences.
210
What are the aims of peer review?
Before a piece of research can be published in an academic journal, it must go through a peer review.
They will be scrutinised by 2/3 others in the field.
To ensure that the research is of a high quality, contricubes to the field of research and is accurately presented.
211
What are the 3 aims peer review?
-To allocate research funding
-To validate quality and relevance of research
-To suggest ammendments or improvements
212
What does allocating research funding mean in peer review?
To award fuding for a project or not. Money could be given by the government or cooperation.
213
What does validating quality and relevance of research mean when regarding peer review?
For the hypothesis, formation, method, statistics, and conculsions are checked.
214
What does suggesting amendments or improvements mean when regarding peer review?
Researchers may suggest minor revisions or the work.They can conclude that the work is inappropriate or it should be withdrawn.
215
How does anonymity affect peer review?
Peer reviews are anonymous, and it is believed that this will lead to a more honest review. Some researchers may use anonymity to cirtisizecrival researched who are in competition for funding. Some journals prefer and open policy
216
How does publication bias affect peer review?
Editors of journals would like to publish significant findings and positive results. Any research that doesn't meet these criteria would be disregarded.Creates a false view of the current state of psychology if editors are selective about what they publish.
217
how does burying groundbreaking research affect peer review?
Editors tend to criticize research that contradicts their own research as many reviewers will be established scientists. Having research that will mstch the status will more likely be approved for publication.
may have the effect of slowing down the rate of change in scientific discipline
218
What is Normative social influence
NSI is a way to explain why people conform to social norms as people like to gain social approval to be accepted in a group.
219
When is NSI likely to occur?
In situations with strangers with strsngers where they are worried about social rejection or even with friends or stressful situations for social support.
220
How does social influence research into conformity improve the economy?
NSI can be used to make people respect the environment and conserve energy.
221
What are the advantages of using counter balancing?
- Impacts of order effects are controlled
-Order effects are distributed evenly
-making each condition of the IV occur as the first task and the second task equally.
222
How do you obtain a stratified sample?
- identify strata / sub-groups in their population.
- calculate the required proportion from each stratum based on the proportion in the population
-select sample at random from sub-group
-use a random selection method, e.g. assign each student a number then use a computer, calculator or random number table to select specified number of numbers between 0 and X (or hat method).
223
How much does an absence cost the economy a year?
£15 million a year.
224
What was the cause for 2/3 of absences ?
It was mild mental disorders(depression, anxiety and stress)
225
What are mental disorders treated with?
Psychotherapeutic drugs
226
How does research into treatments for mental disorders help the economy?
Sufferers are able to manage their condition and return back to work
227
What is eyewitness testimony?
A witness of crimes give their accounts of what they witnessed.
228
Why has there been research into eyewitness testimony?
So the accuracy of rememberd event increase
229
What can accuracy be affected by?
-Anxiety
-leading questions
-incorrect information given to witness
230
Who did bowlby say that a child can only ever assert a secure long-lasting monotropic bond with?
The mother
231
What did Bowlby theory say that the dads role was in child care?
The provider of the family.
232
What has psychologicsl research show in the role of the father?
Both parents are capable of proving the emotional support of a healthy psychological upbringing.
233
How has psychological research in the role of the father affected the economy?
Both parents are working and equally sharing responsibilities. Modern parents are better equipped to maximise their incomr and contribute effecively to the economy.
Psycology
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