1
Q
Define Universality.
A
The belief that certain psychological principles, behaviours or experiences are shared by all people regardless of their culture, gender or time.
2
Q
Define Gender Bias.
A
The unequal or prejudice treatment of one gender compared to another which leads to distorted or inaccurate findings, theories and practices.
3
Q
Define Alpha bias?
A
Exaggeration of the differences between sexes which results in discrimination.
4
Q
What is an example of Alpha Bias?
A
The sociobiological theory explained by Wilson where he explains that human sexual attraction is based on ‘survival efficiency’
-Males are interested in passing on genes by impregnating as many women as possible
-Women are interested in preserving genes y preserving her offspring.
5
Q
What is Beta bias?
A
This is where the differences are minimises between sexes which results in discrimination.
6
Q
When does beta bias occur?
A
When females are not included in psychological research. They believe that findings apply to both sexes.
7
Q
What is example of Beta bias?
A
The fight or flight response was based on mal animals. Taylor suggests that females show more of a tend and befreind response.
8
Q
What is androcentrism?
A
Behaviour that deviates from the ‘male normal’ being judges ad abnormal ,deficient or inferior.
9
Q
What are the strengths of researching the issue of gender bias?
A
Reflxivity
10
Q
Why is reflexivity a strength of researching the issue of gender bias?
A
P:Many modern researcher now recognise the effect of their own valudes and assumptions have on their nature work that as a problem but embrace it now.
E: Dambrin and Lambert studied the lack of higher women in accountancy firms and included a reflection on how gender related experiances influence their reading of event.
E:This is important for psychology and more awareness of gender bias witll lead to greater knowledge of the role of personal bias in shaping research in the future.
11
Q
What are the limitations of researching the issue of gender bias?
A
-Implications of Gender Bias
-Sexism within the research process.
12
Q
Why is implications of gender bias a limitation of researching the issue of gender bias?
A
P:This can create misleading assumptiuons about female behaviour, fail to challange negative strotypes and validate disciminatory practices
E: Carol Travis says that gener bias research makes women feel abnormal
13
Q
Why is sexism within the research process a limitation for gender bias?
A
P: Female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.
E:Male researchers have their work published of gender differences than similarities. Nicolson argues that this may disadvantage women in research.
E: Denmark concludes that psychology is guilt of supporting institutionalised sexism which creates bias in theory and research.
14
Q
What are examples for gender bias for topics from psychology?
A
Gender- Freudian theory
Psychopathology- Premenstrual syndrome
Views on development-
Biopsychology- flight or fight response
Relationships- sociobiological theory of relationship theory of relationship formation.
15
Q
Define Cultural Bias.
A
The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture.
16
Q
Define Ethnocentrism.
A
Judging other culture’s by the standard and values of one’s culture. Belief that ones culture is superior.
17
Q
What is culture relativism?
A
The idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural context.
18
Q
What normally happens with ethnocentrism research?
A
That research will be communicated through a view that those who don’t fit are unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
19
Q
What is an example of enthcentrism?
A
Mary Ainsworth Study. Where avoidant is seen as a bad attachment but in Germany an avoidant attachment is seen as an example of independence.
20
Q
What is imposed etic?
A
Applying a theory /concept from one culture to another.
21
Q
What is an etic approach?
A
Studying behaviour across many cultures in order to find universal human behaviours.
22
Q
What is culture bound syndromes?
A
Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures that are not recognised as such in the West.
23
Q
What is individualist culture?
A
Refers to Western countries that are thought to be more independent.
24
Q
What is a collectivist culture?
A
Refers to cultures that are said to be more conformist and group orientated.
25
What is research tradition?
The familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological investigation.
26
What are the evaluations for cultural bias?
-Individualism and collectivism
-Cultural relativism vs universality
-Unfamiliarity with research tradition
27
Why is individualism and collectivism evaluation?
P: Critics now suggest that with todays global communication increased interconnectedness. With less distinction between cultures.
E: Takano and Osaka found that 14/15 compared USA with japan found not evidence between traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism
E: Suggest that cultural bias in research is less of an issue now.
28
Why is Cultural relativism vs universality an evaluation?
P: Berry says that imposed etic is a remind psychologist of the culturally specific nature of their work. And should not assume that all psychology is culturally relative and no universal behaviour.
E:Ekman says that facial expressions are universal which provides evidence that are some universals.
-Critiques of Ainsworth should not disregard that fact that some human attachment are universal
E: It is concluded that full understand require study of universal and variation almond individuals and groups.
29
Why is unfamiliarity with research a tradition an issue when researching cultures?
P:When conducting research in Western culture they have familiarity with psychological research but does not extend to cultures which are not experienced with this.
E: Bond and Smith suggest that demand characteristics can be exaggerated when working with members of the local population.
E:This means there is more of an adverse effect on the validity of the research.
30
Define emic approach.
A research perspective that studies a particular culture from the insiders perspective focusing on the meanings, values and beliefs of that culture.
31
Define free will.
The idea that individuals are self determining and can actively choose their thoughts and actions than being controlled by biological and environmental forces.
32
Define Determinism.
A view that all behaviourd are caused and predicted .
33
Define Hard Determinism( FATALISM).
All human behavior is caused by forces beyond our control.
34
Define Soft Determinism.
All behaviours are caused and predictable to some extent and retain some degree of free will.
35
Define Biological determinism.
All human behaviour is shaped by biological factors.
36
Define Environmental Determinism.
The behaviour is shaped by external forces, previous experiences and conditioning.
37
Define Psychic Determinism.
All mental and behavioural processes are determined by unconscious forces
38
What is the scientific emphasis on causal explanations?
That every event has a cause which are explained by general laws and laboratory experiments allows control and predication of human behaviour.
39
What is the case against determinism?
P: The hard determinist is not consistent with our legal system operates. Criminals are held morally responsible.
E: Very few people argue crimes are biology or from the environment.
-Determinism is Unfalsifiable- behaviour always have a cause even if it hasn't been found yet.
Can it be tested?
E: Determinist approach is not as scientific as first thought.
40
What is the case for free will?
P: Everyday we are constantly exercising free will through our choices - gives validity to the concept of free will
E: Roberts et al said that those with a high degree of fatalism are more suspectable to depression
Internal locus of control-more mentally healthy
E:If we have no free will what we think has a positive impact on behaviour/mind.
41
What case against free will?
P:Neurological evidences has revealed evidence against free will.
E:**Soon et al** demonstrated that the brain activity determines the outcome of choices before they are made.
10 seconds before a ppt is aware of making a decision there is brain activity whenever to preform the activity.
E: Show that the most basic experiences of free will are decided before we are aware of them.
42
What the compromise of the free will and determinist debate?
The interactionist approach.
Soft determinism where it has a cognitive aspect to explain human behaviour.
Bandura in SLT show that we are are free to choose when to preform behaviours but environmental is key.
43
What is Nature?
Behaviour determined by innate biological factors.
44
Define Nurture.
Behaviour is determined by environmental influences and experiences.
45
Define heredity.
The transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring.
46
Define heritability coefficient.
A statistical measure ranging from 0-1 that estimates the extent to which individuals differences in a trait are due to genetic variation.
47
Define Concordance rate.
The statistical measure of how often a trait is shared between pairs of individuals.
48
Define the interactionist approach.
Views human behaviour as a complex interplay between factors of biological, psychological and social influences.
49
Define the diathesis stress model.
A model which explains how a psychological disorder can develop from an interaction between a genetics and exposure to life events.
50
Define epigenetics.
A model which explains how a persons environment behaviour and experience can cause changes in gene expression without DNA sequence alterations.
51
Define Passive interaction.
Parents genes influence the way they treat their children. Eg musically gifted parents are likely to play music to their children
52
Define Evocative interaction.
The child's genes influence and shape the environment in which hey grow up. Eg. musically talented children will be picked for concerts.
53
Define Active interaction.
The child creates its own environment through people and experiences it selects.
54
In the heredibility coefficient it predicts how much out behaviour is from genes what can we infer is the rest?
Environment.
55
What is Lerner's levels of the environment?
The environment influence broken down.
56
What are the Lerner's levels of the environment?
1. Pre natal- Mothers physical and psychological state during pregnancy
2.Post natal- the social conditions the child grows up in
3. The cultural and historical context - individuals are a part of.
57
What is one example from psychology for the determinist side of the debate?
P: Knowing the cause of the mental illness allows for more treatments to counteract the cause.
E: For example OCD is caused by the lack of serotonin being transmitted so that SSRI(drug therapy) can help produce a regular dose of serotonin.
E:This sits on the determinist side because of the cause is biologically determined as it can not be controlled.
58
What do you put on the front of every nature nurture essay?
It does not suggest that behaviour is solely caused by one side of the debate or the other.
59
What are the implications of the nature and nurture debate?
P:Nativists suggest that anatomy is destiny and out genes determines our characteristics which little from our environment. Empiricists say that environmental conditions determine behaviour.
E: The extreme stances led to controversy eg link between race and intelligence
Environment shaping desirable behaviour.
E: Leads to a model of society that manipulates its citizens with behavioural techniques.
60
What is an evaluation of the nature nurture debate with shared and unshared environments?
P: Research showing that the influence of the environment is complicated with siblings growing up in the same family may have not experiance the same upbringings.
E: Dunn and Plomin introduced the idea of shared and unshared environments where the individual differences may mean that siblings experiances differently. Eg. age or temperament would give have differnt
reactions to a parental divorce.
E:This would explain that MZ twins that are reared together do not have 100% concordance rates.
Supporting heredibility and environment can not be separated.
61
What is the evaluation for the nature nurture debate involving constructivism?
P:Human behaviour being down to either nature but it could be an interactionist approach.
E: With constructivism suggest that people create their own nature which are appropriate to their nature.
EG. a naturally aggressive child will feel more comfortable with those who show simular behaviours. Effects development - niche picking.
E: Scarr and McCartney suggest active interaction where the child creates its own environment (From people to experiances)
E This points out the complex relationship between nature and nurture and it is illogical to separate the two.
62
What is an example of the nature and nurture debate in psychology?
Learning theory where the person who we attach to determine out attachment to.
63
Define Holism.
The perspective that human behaviour and experiance must be understood as a whole than breaking it up into smaller parts.
64
Define Reductionism.
The belief that complex human behaviours can be explained by breaking them down into simple processes.
65
Define Levels of explaination.
A hierarchy of approaches use to explain behaviour from more fundamental to more holistic ones.
66
Define sociocultural level.
A level of explaination which considers how social and cultural factors influence behaviour (e.g. group norms, cultural values and economic status )
67
Define Psychological level.
Explains behaviour using psychological concepts like cognitive processes.
68
Define Physiological level.
Most basic reductionist level which explains behaviour through a biological and chemical process.
69
Define Neurochemical level.
Where Behaviour is explained by neurotransmitters hormones and genes.
70
Define Micro level.
The focus of individual behaviours, interactions and small groups.
71
Define Macro level.
The Focus of how broad, societal level factors like culture, laws
72
What is biological reductionism?
The view that complex human behaviours and mental phenomena can be explained by biological components- genes , neurons etc.
73
Define Environmental reductionism.
A psychological theory that explains behaviour into simple stimulus response associations.
74
What are holism psychologists also known as?
Gestalt psychologists.
75
What is the case against holism?
P:Holism explanations are used with rigorous scientific testing. Become more vague as they are more complex.
E: For instance humanistic psychology gives a holistic approach as it lacks empirical evidence and loose concepts.
E: Suggests that when it comes to finding solutions to real life problems lower level explaination are more appropriate.
76
What is the case for reductionism?
P:Reductionism is formed on the basis of scientific research. Where to operationalise it is necessary to break down into its constituent parts.
E:Makes it possible to conduct experiments in a reliable way and the behaviourist approach can show how complex behaviours can be broken down into stimulus response links.
E:Gives psychology credibility with natural sciences.
77
What is the case against reductionism?
P:Reductionism have oversimplified complex phenomena- loss of validity.
E:Explainsations are from neurotransmitters and do not consist of analysis of social context where behaviours get their meaning.
E: Physiological processes will be the same regardless of context but will not tell why the action was done. Where it could be an act of aggression or indication of a object.
E: Reductionist can only form a part of explanations not fully.
78
What is the conclusion for the holism and reductionist debate?
The interactionist approach.
Explains how differnt levels combine.
e.g. the diathesis stress model for disorders like OCD or schizophrenia. which leads to treatment of combining SSRIS and therapy.
79
What is an example of the holism reductionist debate in psychology?
Social influence- Zimbardo's study showing social roles in behaviour.
Psychopathology- OCD in behaviour
80
What is the idiographic approach?
An approach that focuses on understanding individuals with methods of in depth analysis of a person than generalising findings.
81
What is the nomothetic approach?
Where the psychologists establish general laws about human behaviours with quantitative methods.
82
What are the aspects of the idiographic approach?
-Goes against typical research where it focuses on an individual case to understand than creating a law.
-studied as unique entities with subjective experiance with no attempt to compare with larger group
-Produces quantitative data
83
What are the aspects of the nomothetic approach?
Attempts to behaviour through the development of general laws.
-Scientific methods
-large sample size
84
What are the general laws about human behaviour?
1) law on classifying people into groups eg. DSM classifies people suffering from psychological disorders.
2) Laws on establishing principles of behaviour applied to people in general
3) Law on establishing dimensions - people can be placed and compared along dimensions eg IQ scores.
85
What is the case against the idiographic approach?
P: There is room for the ideographic approach it must be recognised that it is narrow and restricted.
E:Freud's concepts are developed from case studies which is problematic with generalising.
E:Meaningful generalisations can not be make with further examples.
E:The methods associated with idiographic approach are unscientific and are open to bias of the researcher.
86
What is the case for the nomothetic approach?
P: The process involved tends to be more scientific like the natural sciences.
E:For example testing using standardisation and statistical analysis.
-Hypothesis
E: These have enable psychologists to establish norms of typical behaviour and gives psychology greater credibility.
87
What is the case against the nomothetic approach?
P: Nomothetic laws is general laws while it looses the whole person within psychology.
E:Eg. Nomothetic approach teaches us the statistic of developing a disorder but not what the the disorder is like.
Lab studies they tell us the scores of participants but not their subjective experience.
88
What is an example of an idiographic approach in psychology?
One example of the ideographic approach in psychology is genie's case study.
E:Where she was isolated from the world and fed. She had no maternal figure or attachments which led to physical and intellectual problems.
E: This supports the idiographic approach side of the debate because there is only one participant/ individual experiencing this and scientists researched this to under stand how she had these problems and not making any general laws.
89
Define ethical implications.
The potential consequences at research and professional practice and thinking of the impact on participants.
90
Define social sensitivity.
Research that could have negative social consequences for people being studied.
91
Define constructionist.
Views individuals as actively constructing their own understanding and reality through experiences.
92
What do researchers have no control over?
-How their research is represented in the media
-the impact of their work on public policy
-How it may influence perception of particular groups in society.
93
Who does 'taboo' topics attract attention to?
Psychologist and the general public.
94
What is Sieber and Stanley's concerns when conducting socially sensitive research?
1) Implications
2) Public Policy
3) Validity of the research
95
Why is implication a concern when conducting socially sensitive research?
The wider effects should be carefully considered. Studies might give scientific credibility to prejudice and discrimination.
96
Why is public policy a concern when conducting socially sensitive research?
Researchers must think about what the research is used for as it may be adopted by the government and shape public policy
97
Why is Validity of the research a concern when conducting socially sensitive research?
Some findings that are 'objective' are actually fraud. anything can effect the validity. Many socially sensitive researchers are aware of biases.
98
What are the evaluations for ethical implications of research studies?
- Benefits of socially sensitive research.
-Framing the question
-Policymakers rely on socially sensitve research.
99
Why is the framing of the question important?
P:Sieber and Stanley the phrasing of the question may influence the way findings are interpreted.
E:For example cross cultural research can be damaged by imposed etic.
Kitzinger and Coyle notice how research into alternative relationship have been guilts of heterosexual bias.
E:This suggests that investigators must have an open mind and prepared to have their assumptions challenged to avoid misrepresentations.
100
What are the benefits of socially sensitive research?(A03)
P: Sandra Scarr suggests ethical implications with research into controversial topics can promote a greater understanding of these issues of underrepresented groups.
E: This can reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. SSR how benefited society( unreliable EWT research has reduced mistakes of justice in the legal system.
E: This suggest that SSR may be sensitive but must be done as it is a valuable role in society.
101
Why do policy makers rely on socially senstive research?
P: When making a social policy related to child care, education, mental health, crime. It is better to base policies on scientific research that views.
E:EG Office of national statistics are responsible for collecting and analysing statistics about the UK's
economy, population/society.
E: This suggests that psychologists have an important role in producing high quality research on SSR.
102
What is an example of socially sensitive research?
P: One example of socially sensitive research piece of research in psychology is the research of genetic basis on behaviour.
E: This could be by underdevelopment of the prefrontal cortex where it can explain criminal behaviour.
E: This research is socially sensitive as it can lead to people being considered as a 'criminal' due to having this factor and having decisions in sentencing decisions.
103
Psycology
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