1
Q
3 key functions of the vertebral column
A
- support
- movement
- protection
2
Q
how many cervical vertebrae are there
A
7
3
Q
how many thoracic vertebrae are there
A
12
4
Q
how many lumbar vertebrae are there
A
5
5
Q
how many sacrum vertebrae are there
A
5 (fused)
6
Q
how many coccyx vertebrae are there
A
4 (normally and usually fused)
7
Q
what region is identified by number 2
A
vertebral body
8
Q
what region is identified by number 1
A
vertebral foramen
9
Q
what region is identified by number 3
A
pedicle
10
Q
what region is identified by number 4
A
spinous process
11
Q
what region is identified by number 6
A
transverse process
12
Q
what region is identified by number 5
A
fused costal rib element
13
Q
what region is identified by the space between number 6/4
A
lamina
14
Q
where does the spinal cord end
A
L1/L2
15
Q
what is the relation of nerves and vertebra superiorly and inferiorly
A
nerves exist above the vertebra
16
Q
most to least mobile vertebrae
A
1 - cervical
2 - thoracic
3 - lumbar
17
Q
2 types of vertebral joints
A
- zygapophyseal
- symphysis
18
Q
describe the fibrocartilaginous joints of vertebral bodies
A
two parts, annulus fibrosus for tensile strength, nucleus pulposus, gel like with high resilience
19
Q
how do intervertebral discs deal with pressure
A
nucleus pulposus counter acts the pressure, using water that slowly squeezes out under pressure, and is reabsorbed when pressure is relieved
20
Q
describe the atlas of the vertebra
A
C1 - atlas
no vertebral body, articulates with the skull, holds the skull on its shoulders
21
Q
3 key functions of ligaments in MSK
A
- connect bone to bone
- provide support to joints
- restrict movement at joints
22
Q
describe the axis of the vertebra
A
C2 - axis
odontoid process with extra process called dens
23
Q
5 ligaments in the spine
A
- anterior longitudinal ligament
- posterior longitudinal ligament
- supraspinous & nuchal ligament
- ligamentum flavum
- interspinous/intertransverse ligaments
24
Q
describe the longitudinal ligament
A
- base of skull to anterior surface of sacrum
- attached to anterior surface vertebral bodies and IVDs
25
describe the posterior longitudinal ligament
- attached C2 to sacrum
- attached to posterior surface vertebral bodies and IVDs
26
describe the supraspinous ligaments
- C7 to sacrum
- connects tips of spinous processes
27
describe the nuchal ligament
- strong fibroelastic tissue
- base of skull to C7
28
describe the ligamenta flava
- pass between laminae and connect them
- form part of vertebral canal
29
describe the interspinous ligaments
- between spinous processes
30
describe intertransverse ligaments
- between transverse processes
31
what are the intrinsic back muscles supplied by
posterior rami of spinal nerves
32
what two components form the intervertebral disc
annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus
33
what can mild cell injury be reversed by
repair mechanisms
34
severe cell injury results in cell death by which two mechanisms
necrosis, apoptosis
35
describe cell injury by oxidative stress
- caused by free radicals
- normally formed in small amounts
- formed pathologically by absorption of radiation, toxic chemicals, hypoxia
35
describe reversible cell injury
less severe cell injury
36
describe cell death by necrosis
- injury due to external stimuli
- uncontrolled cell death
- often elicits an inflammatory response
- cell contents leak
37
describe cell death by apoptosis
- can be physiological or pathological
- active controlled or programmed cell death
- cell contents DO NOT leak
38
what is cell lysis
release of cell contents
39
what is the term for karyolysis
nuclear fading
40
what is the term for nuclear shrinkage
pyknosis
41
what is the term for nuclear fragmentation
karyorrhexis
42
four morphological subtypes of necrosis
- coagulative
- colliquitive
- caseous
- fat
43
is apoptosis passive or active
active - requires energy
44
describe coagulative necrosis
tissue outline retained, firm
45
describe colliquitive necrosis
tissue become liquid and structure is lost
46
describe caseous necrosis
combination of coagulative and colliquitive
47
describe fat necrosis
action of lipases on fatty tissue
48
what is cell signalling
cell communication
49
what are the five stimuli types in cell signalling
- biochemical
- physical
- electrical (KEY TYPE)
- biotic
- abiotic
50
types of cell signalling from local to long distance
- autocrine
- juxtacrine
- paracrine
- synaptic
- endocrine
51
3 stages of cell signalling and response
- reception
- transduction
- response
52
two types of receptors in the reception stage of cell signalling
- plasma membrane receptors
- intracellular receptors
53
three types of plasma membrane receptors
- ion channel
- channel or enzyme
- protein kinases
54
explain the stages of the transduction stage in cell signalling
- molecules involved are mostly proteins
- activated receptor activates a protein, starting a cascade
- signal transduction leads to a change in protein shape
- amplification of the signal
55
describe the role of kinase cascades in signal transduction
- protein kinases are enzymes that transfer phosphate groups from ATP to a protein
- creates a phosphorylation cascade
- protein phosphatases are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from proteins = protein inactivation
56
describe second messengers
second messengers participate in signal pathways of both GPCRs and kinase-linked receptors
57
role of ligand in transduction
ligands bind to and activate a G protein couple receptor that activates a specific G protein
58
role of G proteins in transduction
activate phospholipase C that catalyses the cleavage of PIP2 into DAG and IP3
59
role of IP3 in transduction
diffuses through the cytosol and binds to an IP3 gated calcium ions flow out of the ER raising the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration
60
role of calcium ions in transduction
activate the next protein in one or more signalling pathways
61
what is the nuclear response
activation of transcription factors in the nucleus that lead to protein synthesis
62
what is the cytoplasmic response
modulation of protein activity in the cytoplasm
63
nuclear response cell division pathway
Ras, Raf, MEK, ERK 1/2
64
nuclear response cell growth and cell survival pathway
PI3K, AKT, mTORC1
65
nuclear response cell migration pathway
PLC, RAC
66
nuclear response muscle contraction
PLC, PIP2, IP3, Ca2+
67
nuclear response muscle relaxation pathway
G protein, adenylate, cyclase, cAMP, PKA
68
describe the mechanisms of signal termination
- binding of signalling molecules is reversible
- relay molecules return to their inactive forms
- this is done via dephosphorylation of protein kinases
- signal molecules are inactivated via post translational modifications
69
explain the importance of signal termination
- proper signal termination ensures that cells respond appropriately to stimuli and maintain environment
- disease prevention
70
what is the name of this cell stress
hyperplasia
71
what is the name of this cell stress
hypertrophy
72
what is the name of this cell stress
atrophy
73
what is the name of this type of cell stress
metaplasia
74
what are the stages of the cell cycle
G0, G1, S, G2, M
75
describe G0 cell cycle stage
- phase when cells are not actively dividing
- some cells can re-enter from G0, some cannot
- in response to external signal/mitogenic factor
76
describe G1 cell cycle stage
- growing in size
- RNA & protein synthesis in preparation for the S phase
- growth factor dependent
77
describe the G2 phase
- further growth
- cell organelle replication
- preparation for mitosis
78
what are the 5 stages of mitosis
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
79
what are the two states that cells can be in
quiescent or dividing
80
describe cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
- regulate progression through the cell cycle
- serine/threonine kinases
- activator proteins that are up or down regulated depending on the phase of the cell cycle
81
describe cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors
small proteins that block cyclin/CDK activity
82
what are the three families of CDK inhibitors
p21 CIP, p27 KIP, p16 INK
83
was is progression to M phase dependent on
cdk1/cyclin B maturation promoting factor
84
what are the four well characterised checkpoints in the cell cycle
- restriction point (G1)
- DNA damage checkpoints (late G1 and G2)
- metaphase checkpoint
85
describe the restriction point
- cell progression is determined by the presence of growth factors
- this is the point by which the cell no longer requires growth factors to complete the cell cycle and commits to cell division
86
what is the 'gatekeeper' at the restriction point
retinoblastoma protein (Rb)
87
role of retinoblastoma in the cell cycle
blocks entry to the cell cycle
88
role of p53 in the cell cycle
detects DNA damage
89
role of BRCA1 in the cell cycle
DNA repair
90
3 methods of DNA damage
chemical mutagens, radiation, errors in replication
91
describe the metaphase checkpoint
- if unattached chromosomes, checkpoint is 'on' and anaphase is inhibited
MBChB Year 1 Phase 1
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