1
Q
Attributions
A
The process of explaining the causes of behavior and events. (e.g., wondering if someone is late due to laziness or traffic)
2
Q
Dispositional attributions
A
Crediting behavior to internal factors like personality or traits. (e.g., “He fell because he is clumsy”)
3
Q
Situational attributions
A
Crediting behavior to external factors or the environment. (e.g., “He fell because the floor was slippery”)
3
Q
Explanatory style
A
A person’s habitual way of explaining life events to themselves.
4
Q
Optimistic explanatory style
A
Attributing setbacks to external, temporary, and specific causes.
5
Q
Pessimistic explanatory style
A
Attributing setbacks to internal, stable, and global causes.
6
Q
Actor/observer bias
A
The tendency to attribute our own actions to the situation while attributing others’ actions to their personality.
7
Q
Fundamental attribution error
A
The tendency to underestimate situational factors and overestimate personality traits when judging others’ behavior.
8
Q
Self-serving bias
A
Taking personal credit for success but blaming outside factors for failure.
9
Q
Internal locus of control
A
The belief that you have primary control over the outcomes in your life.
10
Q
External locus of control
A
The belief that luck, fate, or outside forces determine what happens to you.
11
Q
Mere exposure effect
A
Developing a preference for something simply because you are familiar with it.
12
Q
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A
An expectation that causes you to act in ways that make the expectation come true.
13
Q
Social comparison
A
Evaluating your own abilities by comparing yourself to others.
14
Q
Upward social comparison
A
Comparing yourself to someone you perceive as superior, which can cause either inspiration or envy.
15
Q
Downward social comparison
A
Comparing yourself to someone you perceive as less fortunate to make yourself feel better.
16
Q
Relative deprivation
A
The perception that you are worse off compared to the people you associate with.
17
Q
Stereotype
A
A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
18
Q
Cognitive load
A
The total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory.
19
Q
Discrimination
A
Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
20
Q
Prejudice
A
An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members.
21
Q
Implicit attitudes
A
Evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude, object, or the self.
22
Q
Just-world phenomenon
A
The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
23
Q
Out-group homogeneity bias
A
The perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members (“they are alike; we are diverse”).
24
In-group bias
The tendency to favor our own group.
25
Ethnocentrism
The belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture, often leading to viewing other groups from the perspective of one's own.
26
Belief perseverance
Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
27
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
28
Cognitive dissonance
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.
29
Social norms
Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior within a group. (e.g., tipping at a restaurant)
30
Social influence theory
The study of how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are modified by the presence or actions of others.
31
Normative social influence
Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
31
Informational social influence
Influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others' opinions about reality, especially when unsure.
32
Persuasion
The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
32
Elaboration likelihood model
A theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route.
33
Central route persuasion
Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. (e.g., buying a car based on its safety features and gas mileage)
34
Peripheral route persuasion
Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness or celebrity endorsements.
35
Halo effect
A cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person (like their looks) influences how we feel about their character.
36
Door-in-the-face technique
Persuading someone to agree to a small request by first making a large, outrageous request that will be rejected.
37
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
37
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
38
Obedience
Changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure.
39
Individualism
Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes.
40
Collectivism
Giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly.
41
Multiculturalism
The practice of giving equal attention or representation to many different backgrounds in a particular setting.
42
Group polarization
The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
43
Groupthink
The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
44
Diffusion of responsibility
The phenomenon where a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present.
45
Social loafing
The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
46
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
47
Social facilitation
Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
48
Superordinate goals
Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
48
False consensus effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
49
Social traps
A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
50
Industrial-organizational psychologists
Professionals who apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace to improve productivity and quality of life.
51
Burnout
A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by long-term involvement in emotionally demanding situations.
52
Altruism
Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
53
Prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior.
54
Social debt
A feeling of obligation to repay a favor or service to maintain social balance.
55
Social reciprocity norm
An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
56
Social responsibility norm
An expectation that people will help those needing their help (e.g., children or the elderly) even if the cost outweighs the benefit.
57
Bystander effect
The tendency for any given witness to be less likely to give aid if other witnesses are present.
58
Situational variables
External factors in the environment that can influence a person’s behavior (e.g., noise, heat, or the presence of others).
59
Attentional variables
Factors that determine what information a person notices or focuses on in a given situation.
60
Psychodynamic theory of personality
A view that explains personality as a result of unconscious psychological conflicts and the influence of early childhood experiences.
61
Unconscious processes
Thoughts, memories, and desires that are buried deep within the mind, below conscious awareness, yet still influence behavior.
62
Ego defense mechanism
Unconscious mental strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.
63
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge or believe a painful reality or obvious truth. (e.g., a heavy smoker refusing to admit that smoking is bad for their health)
64
Displacement
Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person. (e.g., yelling at your brother because you are angry at your boss)
65
Projection
Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. (e.g., an unfaithful spouse accusing their partner of cheating)
66
Rationalization
Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions. (e.g., "I only failed the test because the teacher hates me," rather than admitting to not studying)
67
Reaction formation
Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites. (e.g., being overly "fake" nice to someone you actually intensely dislike)
68
Regression
Retreating to a more infantile or youthful psychosexual stage when faced with anxiety. (e.g., a teenager sucking their thumb before a big exam)
69
Repression
The basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
70
Sublimation
Channeling socially unacceptable impulses into socially constructive or admirable activities. (e.g., turning aggressive urges into professional sports or art)
71
Projective tests
Personality tests, such as the Rorschach, that provide ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger the projection of one's inner dynamics.
72
Preconscious mind
A level of the mind containing information that is not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily retrieved if needed.
73
Humanistic psychology
A perspective that emphasizes the growth potential of healthy people and an individual's capacity for personal growth and self-determination.
74
Unconditional regard
An attitude of total acceptance toward another person, regardless of their flaws or failures.
75
Self-actualizing tendency
The striving to fulfill one's potential and become the best version of oneself.
76
Social-cognitive theory
A perspective that views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
77
Reciprocal determinism
The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. (e.g., your interest in soccer leads you to join a team, which introduces you to athletic friends who further encourage your soccer playing)
78
Self-concept
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
79
Self-efficacy
One's belief in their own ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.
80
Self-esteem
One's feelings of high or low self-worth.
81
Trait theories
Perspectives that define personality through stable and enduring behavior patterns and conscious motives.
82
Big Five Theory
The most widely accepted trait theory, which organizes personality into five broad dimensions (OCEAN).
83
Openness to experience
A trait characterized by imagination, curiosity, and a willingness to try new things.
84
Conscientiousness
A trait characterized by organization, dependability, and discipline.
85
Extraversion
A trait characterized by outgoingness, energy, and sociability.
86
Agreeableness
A trait characterized by being cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured.
87
Emotional stability
(Also known as Neuroticism) The degree to which a person is calm and secure versus anxious and insecure.
88
Personality inventories
Questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.
89
Factor analysis
A statistical procedure used to identify clusters of test items that tap into basic components of a trait. (e.g., realizing that "liking parties" and "talking a lot" both cluster under the factor of Extraversion)
90
Drive-reduction theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (e.g., thirst creates a drive to drink)
91
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level.
92
Arousal theory
The theory that people are motivated to maintain an individual, optimal level of alertness or physical and mental activation.
93
Optimal level of arousal
The specific amount of stimulation at which an individual feels and performs their best; not too bored and not too stressed.
94
Yerkes-Dodson law
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. (e.g., a moderate amount of anxiety can help you study, but too much causes a "brain freeze")
95
Self-determination theory
A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to grow and change by three innate and universal psychological needs: competence, connection, and autonomy.
96
Intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake or for internal satisfaction.
97
Incentive theory
A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.
98
Extrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
99
Instincts
Complex behaviors that are rigidly patterned throughout a species and are unlearned.
100
Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory
A framework describing the internal struggle that occurs when we are faced with competing choices or goals.
101
Approach-approach conflict
A conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals. (e.g., choosing between two favorite desserts)
102
Approach-avoidance conflict
A conflict occurring when a goal has both attractive and unattractive features. (e.g., wanting a promotion but dreading the increased workload)
103
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
A conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals. (e.g., doing homework or doing chores)
104
Sensation-seeking theory
The idea that some people have a higher biological need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences
105
Disinhibition
A lack of restraint manifested in disregard for social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment.
106
Boredom susceptibility
An individual’s need for external stimulation and their tendency to become easily dissatisfied with repetitive or routine tasks.
107
Ghrelin
A hormone secreted by an empty stomach that sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain.
107
Leptin
A protein hormone secreted by fat cells that causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.
108
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus that directs several maintenance activities, including eating, drinking, and body temperature.
109
Pituitary gland
The "master gland" of the endocrine system, regulated by the hypothalamus, which releases hormones that affect growth and other endocrine glands.
110
Cognitive label
The mental name or identification given to a specific state of physiological arousal. (e.g., labeling a racing heart as "fear" in a dark alley vs. "excitement" on a roller coaster)
111
Affect
A psychological term used to describe the experience of feeling or emotion, often categorized by its intensity and whether it is positive or negative.
112
Facial-feedback hypothesis
The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. (e.g., forcing a smile can actually make you feel slightly happier)
113
Cognitive appraisal
The subjective interpretation of a situation that determines the nature and intensity of the emotional response.
114
Broaden-and-build theory of emotion
The theory that positive emotions expand our awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions, which over time build lasting physical, intellectual, and social resources.
115
Universality of emotions
The theory that certain basic emotions (such as happiness, sadness, anger, and fear) are recognized and expressed similarly through facial expressions across all human cultures.
116
Display rules
A group's informal norms or cultural rules about how, when, and where one should express emotions. (e.g., masking disappointment when losing a competition in some cultures vs. expressing it openly in others)
117
