Lecture 2. Chapter 1.

Question 1

What is a theory?

Answer 1

An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observes events. Explain how and why variables interact.

Question 2

What is a hypothesis

Answer 2

Created based on theory. Testable prediction about relationships of 2+ variables.

Question 3

Correlational research

Answer 3

Research in which two or more variables are measured and analyzed to determine to what extent, if any, they are associated.

Question 4

Experimental research

Answer 4

A study in which a researcher manipulates a variable, referred to as the independent variable, measures possible effects on another variable, referred to as the dependent variable, and tries to hold all other variables constant.

Question 5

What is stereotype threat

Answer 5

was inspired by the consistent observation that members of socially devalued groups often perform less well on average than members of the advantaged or majority group.

Question 6

Why does steryotype threat occur

2 reasons

Answer 6

1- The more people are conscious of the negative stereotype of their group, the worse they will perform in areas related to the stereotype.

2- Situations that make a negative stereotype of a person’s group prominent in the person’s mind will lead to worse performance than situations that do not.

Question 7

What is stigma consciousness

Answer 7

the tendency to be highly conscious of one’s stereotyped status and to believe that these stereotypes shape how one is viewed by others

Question 8

Conceptual variables

Answer 8

Abstract concept that one may measure, like depression, altruism, ect. Need to be measured somehow.

Question 9

Operational definition

Answer 9

States specifically how to measure or manipulate a conceptual variable.

Question 10

Self-report measures

Answer 10

Subjective, but presumably the best view of psychological processes. Simple, cost effective, but not always accurate.

Question 11

Explain the response link

Answer 11

People are unaware of stimuli that elicit a response and the response. Unaware of the response link.

Question 12

Self-deception

Answer 12

Answering questions in a way that make ourselves look good

Question 13

Better than average effect

Answer 13

People think they are better than average. Put themselves at the most highly desirable end of a scale due to social desirability and how we look to ourselves.

Question 14

Can self-deception be good?

Answer 14

Yes, it can actually promote performance. But is it not good for self-report measures.

Question 15

Can we introspect?

Answer 15

Online when stimuli is salient and a plausible cause of response. If it is not, then poor introspection.

Question 16

Measuring behaviour

Answer 16

Measuring what we can see. Bypasses some problems of self-report. Easier to operationalize.

Question 17

Issues with measuring behaviour

Example?

Answer 17

People care about preforming well, so behaviour can be changed temporarily. Like only being alturistic because someone is there observing it.

Question 18

Multiple ‘or’ issues of behaviour

Example?

Answer 18

Hard to know what its really measuring sometimes. Like is helping behaviour really measuring alturism or more like social sensitivity?

Question 19

Measuring reaction times

Answer 19

Provides access to unconcious or automatic processes. See whats going on in someones head.

Question 20

Biological measures

Answer 20

brain and body functional and structural differences. Indicates differences in psychological processes, like what part of the brain is related to what process.

Question 21

What is validity asking

Answer 21

Does it measure what it is supposed to?

Question 22

What is convergent validity

Example?

Answer 22

the measure should correlate more strongly with other measures of the same constructs. Scores of hapiness might correlate with scores of extraversion.

Question 23

What is discriminant validity

Example?

Answer 23

scores on the measure are not related to other measures that are theoretically different. Like depression scores should not be related to extraversion scores.

Question 24

What is predictive validity

Answer 24

Whethere the mesure relates to another mesure of the same construct administered in the future.

Question 25

What is reliabilty

Answer 25

Tendency of a mesure to get the same results more than one.

Question 26

What is measurment error

Answer 26

Degree to which measurements differ

Question 27

What causes measurements to differ | 4 causes

Answer 27

Low precision of measurement The state of the participant The state of the experimenter The environment

Question 28

What is the reverse causality problem

Answer 28

Correlations tell us nothing about which of two interrelated variables is the cause and which is the effect.

Question 29

What is conceptual replication

Answer 29

The repetition of a study with different operationalizations of the crucial variables but yielding similar results. Minimizes confounds.

Question 30

What are the two basic principles of experimental research

Answer 30

Experimental control: Having control over variables to manipulate them. Can lowkey make it less accruate as its not natural. Random assignemnt: Elimiates variation, easier to compare groups, only difference is the manipulated treatment.

Question 31

What are the experimental validities

Answer 31

Internal, construct, and external

Question 32

Internal validity

Answer 32

Whether changes in the IV cause changes in the DV.

Question 33

What is construct validity | Example?

Answer 33

Whether the manipulation of the IV is a good represention of the theoretical consturct. Is altruism measuring what we want it to?

Question 34

What is external validity

Answer 34

Whether the results generalize to other labs, settings, people.

Question 35

Similarities of experimental and correlational research | 2

Answer 35

Both wants to assess the relationship between two variables. The statistics are interchangeable.

Question 37

Differences in experimental and correlational research | 3

Answer 37

Experimental manipulates the causal variable, and correlational just measures it. Only exp can assess causality, with correlational there is an unknown direction. Exp can create unrealistic levels of a variable, 3rd variables problem can occur.

Question 38

What is direct replication

Answer 38

The process of reproducing a scientific finding by repeating the same methods and measures used in the original research study.

Question 39

What are moderator variables

Answer 39

Variables that explain when, where, or for whom an effect is most likely to occur. Variables are different across situations. So should be replicated across situations.

Question 40

Causes of non replication

Answer 40

Small sample sizes Dropping subjects, conditions, DVs P-hacking

Question 41

How to improve science | 5

Answer 41

Increase sample size Replications Preregister studies to prevent p-hacking Offsite repositories for stimuli Offsite data storage

Question 42

What are registered reports

Answer 42

A study that is accepted for publication on the strength of the methods and importance of the question but before results are known.

Question 43

What should a good theory do | 4

Answer 43

Explain observations Provide direction for research Generate new questions Have practical value

Question 44

Limitations of science | 4

Answer 44

There are aspects of reality that humans cannot know. Like our sense of sight limiting us. Scientific method is objective, but the humans applying it might not be. Human nature is lowk bias. Not all questions can be answered scientifically. Like which values are right and wrong. Human values exert powerful influence on the way science is conducted.

Question 45

What is deception in research

Answer 45

Used so participant responses are not impacted by the true purpose of the study. Or to create the conditions necessary to test a hypothesis.

Question 46

What are demand characteristics

Answer 46

Aspects of a study that give away its purpose or communicate how the participant is expected to behave.