1
Q
Performance analysis
A
The systematic observation and assessment of performance to improve skill, tactics, decision-making, fitness, and outcomes in sport.
2
Q
Coaching process
A
A cycle in which a coach plans, observes, evaluates, gives feedback, and adjusts training or performance.
3
Q
Limitations of the coaching process
A
Weaknesses in traditional coaching, such as relying too much on memory, missing events during performance, bias, and difficulty analysing many actions at once.
4
Q
Performance analysis technology
A
Tools such as video, GPS, heart-rate monitors, and notational software used to make analysis more accurate and detailed.
5
Q
Qualitative analysis
A
Analysis based on the quality of performance, focusing on how a movement or skill looks. Example: judging whether a high jump approach looked smooth and controlled.
6
Q
Quantitative analysis
A
Analysis based on numerical data and measurable information. Example: recording pass completion rate as 82%.
7
Q
Choosing the correct method of analysis
A
Selecting the most suitable analysis method depending on the sport, goal, and type of data needed.
8
Q
Analysing data
A
Interpreting collected information so it can be used to improve performance.
9
Q
Video analysis
A
Using recorded footage to review performance in detail.
10
Q
Advantage of video analysis
A
It can be replayed, slowed down, paused, and reviewed several times for accuracy.
11
Q
Disadvantage of video analysis
A
It can be time-consuming, expensive, and may require specialist equipment or software.
12
Q
Use of video analysis
A
Used to improve technique, tactics, positioning, and decision-making.
13
Q
Fitness testing
A
Using recognised tests to measure components of fitness.
14
Q
Laboratory-based fitness testing
A
Fitness testing carried out in controlled conditions using specialist equipment. Example: a VO2 max treadmill test.
15
Q
Application of laboratory-based testing
A
Used when high accuracy and controlled conditions are needed, especially for elite performers.
16
Q
Notational analysis
A
Recording and counting key actions or events during performance.
17
Q
Advantage of notational analysis
A
It gives objective numerical data and can identify patterns of play.
18
Q
Disadvantage of notational analysis
A
It may miss context or quality, and accuracy depends on the observer.
19
Q
Use of notational analysis
A
Used to count successful passes, shots, tackles, errors, possession time, and movement patterns.
20
Q
Lever
A
A rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point to move a load.
21
Q
Fulcrum / pivot
A
The fixed point around which a lever rotates.
22
Q
Effort
A
The force applied to move the lever.
23
Q
Load / resistance
A
The weight or opposing force that the effort must overcome.
24
Q
First-class lever
A
A lever where the fulcrum lies between the effort and the load. Example: neck extension when heading a ball.
25
Second-class lever
A lever where the load lies between the fulcrum and the effort. Example: plantar flexion when standing on tiptoe.
26
Third-class lever
A lever where the effort lies between the fulcrum and the load. Example: biceps curl at the elbow.
27
Mechanical advantage
When a lever allows a small effort to move a larger load.
28
Mechanical disadvantage
When a larger effort is needed to move a smaller load, usually to gain speed and range of movement.
29
Advantage of first-class levers
They can provide either force or speed depending on the position of effort and load.
30
Disadvantage of first-class levers
They are not always efficient for producing large force quickly.
31
Advantage of second-class levers
They give mechanical advantage and are good for moving heavy loads.
32
Disadvantage of second-class levers
They usually produce less speed and range of motion.
33
Advantage of third-class levers
They produce high speed and large range of movement, which is useful in sport.
34
Disadvantage of third-class levers
They operate at mechanical disadvantage and require greater effort.
35
Plane
An imaginary flat surface through which movement takes place.
36
Axis
An imaginary line around which the body rotates.
37
Frontal plane
A vertical plane dividing the body into front and back.
38
Sagittal plane
A vertical plane dividing the body into left and right.
39
Horizontal / transverse plane
A horizontal plane dividing the body into upper and lower sections.
40
Longitudinal axis
A vertical axis running from head to toe.
41
Transverse axis
A horizontal axis running from side to side.
42
Frontal / anterior-posterior axis
A horizontal axis running from front to back.
43
Flexion
A movement that decreases the angle at a joint. Example: bending the elbow.
44
Extension
A movement that increases the angle at a joint. Example: straightening the knee.
45
Abduction
Movement away from the midline of the body. Example: raising the arm sideways.
46
Adduction
Movement toward the midline of the body. Example: bringing the arm back to the side.
47
Circumduction
A circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. Example: bowling arm action in cricket.
48
Pronation
Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces downward.
49
Supination
Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces upward.
50
Rotation
Turning a bone or body part around its longitudinal axis. Example: turning the head side to side.
51
Plantar flexion
Pointing the foot downward at the ankle. Example: pushing off the ground in a jump.
52
Dorsiflexion
Bringing the toes upward toward the shin.
53
Lateral flexion
Side bending of the trunk or neck.
54
Horizontal flexion
Movement of a limb across the body in the horizontal plane.
55
Horizontal extension
Movement of a limb away from the body in the horizontal plane.
56
Movement in the sagittal plane
Usually involves flexion and extension around the transverse axis.
57
Movement in the frontal plane
Usually involves abduction and adduction around the frontal axis.
58
Movement in the horizontal plane
Usually involves rotation and horizontal flexion/extension around the longitudinal axis.
59
Articulation
Another word for a joint; the place where two or more bones meet.
60
Fibrous joint
A fixed or immovable joint joined by fibrous tissue. Example: skull sutures.
61
Cartilaginous joint
A slightly movable joint where bones are connected by cartilage. Example: between the vertebrae.
62
Synovial joint
A freely movable joint containing synovial fluid.
63
Hinge joint
A synovial joint that allows flexion and extension only. Example: elbow, knee.
64
Pivot joint
A synovial joint allowing rotational movement. Example: atlas-axis joint in the neck.
65
Ball and socket joint
A synovial joint allowing movement in all directions including rotation. Example: shoulder, hip.
66
Gliding joint
A synovial joint where bones slide over one another. Example: carpals in the wrist.
67
Ellipsoid joint
A synovial joint allowing flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction but not full rotation. Example: wrist.
68
Skeletal system
The body system made up of bones, joints, and connective tissues.
69
Axial skeleton
The central part of the skeleton including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
70
Appendicular skeleton
The limbs and girdles attached to the axial skeleton.
71
Function of the skeletal system: support
Provides the body with shape and support.
72
Function of the skeletal system: protection
Protects vital organs. Example: ribs protect the heart and lungs.
73
Function of the skeletal system: movement
Bones act as levers and muscles pull on them to create movement.
74
Function of the skeletal system: blood cell production
Red and white blood cells are produced in bone marrow.
75
Function of the skeletal system: mineral storage
Bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.
76
Skeletal muscle
Voluntary muscle attached to bones that produces movement.
77
Function of skeletal muscle: movement
Contracts to move bones at joints.
78
Function of skeletal muscle: posture
Helps maintain body position and alignment.
79
Function of skeletal muscle: stabilisation
Supports joints and controls movement.
80
Function of skeletal muscle: heat production
Generates heat during contraction.
81
Major muscle: deltoid
A shoulder muscle that abducts the arm.
82
Major muscle: pectoralis major
A chest muscle that flexes and adducts the arm.
83
Major muscle: latissimus dorsi
A back muscle that extends and adducts the arm.
84
Major muscle: trapezius
An upper back muscle that moves and stabilises the shoulder girdle.
85
Major muscle: biceps brachii
A front upper-arm muscle that flexes the elbow.
86
Major muscle: triceps brachii
A back upper-arm muscle that extends the elbow.
87
Major muscle: rectus abdominis
An abdominal muscle that flexes the trunk.
88
Major muscle: external obliques
Side abdominal muscles that assist trunk rotation and lateral flexion.
89
Major muscle: hip flexors
Muscles that flex the hip. Example: iliopsoas group.
90
Major muscle: gluteals
Buttock muscles that extend and abduct the hip.
91
Major muscle: quadriceps
Front thigh muscles that extend the knee.
92
Major muscle: hamstrings
Back thigh muscles that flex the knee and extend the hip.
93
Major muscle: tibialis anterior
Shin muscle that dorsiflexes the ankle.
94
Major muscle: gastrocnemius
Calf muscle that plantar flexes the ankle and assists knee flexion.
95
Type I muscle fibres / slow twitch
Fibres that contract slowly, resist fatigue well, and are suited to aerobic endurance work.
96
Characteristics of Type I fibres
High fatigue resistance, lower force, many mitochondria, high myoglobin content, strong aerobic capacity.
97
Type IIa muscle fibres
Fast fibres with a mix of aerobic and anaerobic qualities; suited to repeated powerful efforts.
98
Characteristics of Type IIa fibres
Faster contraction, moderate fatigue resistance, moderate-to-high force production.
99
Type IIb muscle fibres
Very fast fibres suited to explosive anaerobic activity.
100
Characteristics of Type IIb fibres
High force, very fast contraction, fatigue quickly, low aerobic capacity.
101
Antagonistic muscle action
When muscles work in pairs to create movement.
102
Agonist / prime mover
The muscle mainly responsible for producing a movement.
103
Antagonist
The muscle that opposes the agonist and relaxes or lengthens during movement.
104
Fixator
A muscle that stabilises one part of the body so movement can occur elsewhere.
105
Synergist
A muscle that assists the agonist to produce movement.
106
Muscle contraction
The development of tension in a muscle, which may or may not involve shortening.
107
Isotonic contraction
A contraction in which the muscle changes length while producing movement.
108
Concentric contraction
An isotonic contraction where the muscle shortens as it contracts. Example: upward phase of a biceps curl.
109
Eccentric contraction
An isotonic contraction where the muscle lengthens while under tension. Example: lowering phase of a biceps curl.
110
Isometric contraction
A contraction where the muscle develops tension without changing length. Example: holding a plank.
111
Fitness
The ability to meet the demands of the environment or activity.
112
Health-related fitness
Components of fitness linked to general health and well-being.
113
Aerobic capacity
The ability of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to supply oxygen during prolonged exercise.
114
Muscular strength
The maximum force a muscle or muscle group can produce in one contraction.
115
Muscular endurance
The ability of a muscle or muscle group to perform repeated contractions without fatiguing.
116
Body composition
The relative proportions of fat, muscle, bone, and other tissues in the body.
117
Skill-related fitness
Components of fitness linked more directly to sports performance.
118
Agility
The ability to change direction quickly while maintaining control.
119
Balance
The ability to maintain centre of mass over the base of support.
120
Co-ordination
The ability to use body parts together smoothly and efficiently.
121
Speed
The rate at which a person can move all or part of the body.
122
Power
The ability to apply strength quickly; force x speed.
123
Reaction time
The time taken to respond to a stimulus.
124
Weight training
Training that uses resistance to improve strength, power, or muscular endurance.
125
Continuous training
Steady exercise performed without rest for an extended period.
126
Fartlek training
Training involving varied pace and intensity, often mixing walking, jogging, sprinting, and terrain.
127
Interval training
Training that alternates work periods with rest or recovery periods.
128
High intensity training / HIT
Training performed at very high intensity, usually close to maximum effort, with short recovery.
129
Plyometrics
Explosive exercises using a stretch-shortening cycle to improve power. Example: depth jumps.
130
Circuit training
A series of exercise stations completed in sequence.
131
Mobility training
Training designed to improve range of motion and control around joints.
132
Flexibility training
Training designed to increase the range of movement at a joint.
133
Environmental training
Training in specific environmental conditions to improve performance or adaptation. Example: altitude or heat training.
134
Periodisation
The structured planning of training into phases to peak at the right time and avoid overtraining.
135
Goal setting
The process of identifying specific targets to guide motivation and performance improvement.
136
SMART goals
Goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound.
137
Adenosine triphosphate / ATP
The immediate source of energy for muscular contraction.
138
ATP-PC system
An anaerobic energy system that uses phosphocreatine to rapidly resynthesise ATP for short, explosive efforts.
139
Use of ATP-PC system
Best for very high-intensity exercise lasting about 0-10 seconds. Example: a 100 m sprint start or shot put.
140
Glycolysis
The breakdown of glucose to release energy.
141
Lactic acid system / anaerobic glycolysis
An anaerobic system that breaks down glucose without oxygen to resynthesise ATP.
142
Use of anaerobic glycolysis
Best for high-intensity exercise lasting about 10 seconds to 2 minutes. Example: 400 m running.
143
Aerobic glycolysis / aerobic system
An energy system that uses oxygen to break down carbohydrates and fats to resynthesise ATP.
144
Use of aerobic system
Best for lower-intensity, longer-duration exercise. Example: marathon running.
145
Specificity
Training should match the demands of the sport, position, and performer.
146
Progressive overload
Gradually increasing training demands so the body adapts and improves.
147
Reversibility
Fitness improvements are lost if training stops or is reduced too much.
148
Variance / variety
Changing training methods or content to maintain motivation and avoid plateaus.
149
Application of energy systems to planning training programmes
Training should be designed to develop the energy system most used in the sport.
150
Warm-up
Preparation before exercise involving gradual physical and mental readiness.
151
Importance of an effective warm-up
Raises body temperature, increases blood flow, prepares muscles and joints, improves focus, and reduces injury risk.
152
Cool-down
Gradual reduction in activity after exercise to help recovery.
153
Importance of a cool-down
Helps remove waste products, lowers heart rate gradually, reduces dizziness, and may reduce soreness.
154
Fatigue
A decline in the ability to produce force or perform effectively.
155
Cause of fatigue: depletion of energy stores
Low ATP, phosphocreatine, or glycogen reduces ability to continue exercise.
156
Cause of fatigue: lactic acid accumulation
Associated with reduced muscle efficiency and discomfort during high-intensity work.
157
Cause of fatigue: dehydration
Loss of body fluid reduces performance and increases strain on the body.
158
Cause of fatigue: increased body temperature
Excess heat can impair performance and concentration.
159
Effect of fatigue on performance
Reduced skill, slower reactions, poorer decision-making, lower intensity, and reduced coordination.
160
OBLA / onset of blood lactate accumulation
The point at which lactate begins to accumulate in the blood faster than it can be removed.
161
Importance of OBLA
It marks a level of exercise intensity beyond which fatigue rises quickly.
162
DOMS / delayed onset of muscle soreness
Muscle soreness and stiffness that develops after exercise, usually peaking 24-72 hours later.
163
Cause of DOMS
Mainly caused by microscopic damage to muscle fibres, often after unaccustomed or eccentric exercise.
164
EPOC / excess post-exercise oxygen consumption
The extra oxygen the body uses after exercise to return to resting levels.
165
Purpose of EPOC
To restore oxygen stores, remove lactate, resynthesise ATP-PC, and return the body to normal.
166
Recovery
The process of restoring the body to its pre-exercise condition.
167
Active cool-down
Low-intensity movement after exercise to promote circulation and recovery.
168
Compression clothing
Tight garments worn to support muscles and improve circulation during or after exercise.
169
Possible effect of compression clothing on recovery
May reduce muscle soreness and swelling in some performers.
170
Nutrition and recovery
Food intake after exercise to replace energy stores and repair tissue.
171
Supplementation
Using additional products such as protein or electrolytes to support recovery.
172
Massage
Manual manipulation of muscles and soft tissues to assist relaxation and recovery.
173
Rehabilitation
The process of restoring full function after injury through structured recovery and treatment.
174
Balanced diet
A diet containing the right amounts of nutrients to maintain health and support performance.
175
Carbohydrate
The main nutrient used to provide energy, especially during exercise.
176
Protein
A nutrient mainly used for growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues.
177
Fat
A nutrient used as an energy source, insulation, and protection of organs.
178
Relative proportions of carbohydrate, fat, and protein
The balance of these nutrients in the diet depending on health and activity demands.
179
Kilojoules / calorific intake
The amount of energy consumed in food and drink.
180
Energy balance
The relationship between energy intake and energy expenditure.
181
Positive energy balance
Energy intake is greater than energy expenditure, leading to weight gain.
182
Negative energy balance
Energy expenditure is greater than energy intake, leading to weight loss.
183
Function of carbohydrate in sport
Provides the main fuel for moderate to high intensity exercise.
184
Function of fat in sport
Provides energy at rest and during lower-intensity, longer-duration exercise.
185
Function of protein in sport
Supports muscle repair, growth, and recovery.
186
Glycaemic index / GI
A ranking of carbohydrate foods based on how quickly they raise blood glucose levels.
187
High GI food
A carbohydrate food that releases glucose quickly. Example: white bread.
188
Low GI food
A carbohydrate food that releases glucose more slowly. Example: oats.
189
Variation in diet for different activities
Diet should change depending on the sport, duration, intensity, and training goals.
190
Hydration
Maintaining adequate fluid levels in the body.
191
Dehydration
Excessive loss of body water.
192
Detrimental effect of dehydration on performance
Dehydration reduces endurance, concentration, coordination, and temperature regulation.
193
Isotonic drink
A drink with a similar concentration of dissolved particles to body fluids, giving fast fluid and moderate carbohydrate replacement.
194
Ideal use of isotonic drinks
Best during or after moderate to high intensity exercise when both fluid and energy need replacing. Example: during a football match.
195
Hypotonic drink
A drink with a lower concentration of dissolved particles than body fluids, so it is absorbed very quickly.
196
Ideal use of hypotonic drinks
Best when rapid hydration is the main goal and little carbohydrate is needed. Example: after short exercise in hot conditions.
197
Hypertonic drink
A drink with a higher concentration of dissolved particles than body fluids, usually high in carbohydrate.
198
Ideal use of hypertonic drinks
Best after exercise when carbohydrate replacement is more important than immediate hydration. Example: after a long endurance session.
199
Personality
The combination of characteristics and behaviours that make an individual unique.
200
Trait theory
A theory suggesting personality is made up of stable inherited traits.
201
Interactionist theory
A theory suggesting behaviour is shaped by both personality traits and the situation.
202
Social learning theory
A theory suggesting personality and behaviour are learned through observation, reinforcement, and experience in social situations.
203
Extrovert
A personality type that is sociable, outgoing, and often seeks excitement.
204
Introvert
A personality type that is quieter, more reserved, and often prefers lower levels of stimulation.
205
Stable personality
A personality type that is calm, controlled, and emotionally consistent.
206
Neurotic personality
A personality type that is more anxious, moody, and emotionally unstable.
207
Type A personality
Competitive, driven, impatient, and highly achievement-focused.
208
Type B personality
More relaxed, patient, and less easily stressed.
209
Personality profiling
Assessing personality characteristics to build a picture of an individual performer.
210
Observation
Watching behaviour directly to assess personality or performance traits.
211
Questionnaire
A written set of questions used to gather self-reported information.
212
Interview
A spoken question-and-answer method used to gather deeper information.
213
POMS / Profile of Mood States
A questionnaire used to assess mood states such as tension, anger, fatigue, depression, vigour, and confusion.
214
Stress
A response to a demand or situation that the performer perceives as challenging or threatening.
215
Arousal
A state of alertness or readiness ranging from deep sleep to intense excitement.
216
Anxiety
A negative emotional state involving worry, nervousness, and apprehension.
217
Drive theory
A theory stating that as arousal increases, performance increases in a straight line, especially for well-learned skills.
218
Inverted-U theory
A theory suggesting performance improves with arousal up to an optimum point, then declines if arousal becomes too high.
219
Catastrophe theory
A theory suggesting that if cognitive anxiety is high, a small increase in arousal can cause a sudden major drop in performance.
220
ZOF / zone of optimal functioning
The individual arousal level or range in which a performer performs best.
221
Peak flow experience
A mental state where performance feels automatic, fully focused, and effortless.
222
Measurement of stress, arousal, and anxiety
Assessing these responses using observation, questionnaires, physiological measures, or self-report scales.
223
Somatic anxiety
Physical symptoms of anxiety such as sweating, trembling, or increased heart rate.
224
Cognitive anxiety
Mental worry, negative thoughts, and concern about performance.
225
Trait anxiety
A personality tendency to perceive situations as threatening.
226
State anxiety
A temporary emotional response to a specific situation.
227
Methods of controlling stress, arousal, and anxiety
Techniques used to regulate emotional and physiological responses before or during performance.
228
Somatic stress management
Methods aimed at controlling physical symptoms. Example: breathing control or progressive muscular relaxation.
229
Cognitive stress management
Methods aimed at controlling thoughts and attention. Example: positive self-talk or imagery.
230
Progressive muscular relaxation
A technique involving tensing and relaxing muscle groups to reduce physical tension.
231
Breathing control
Using slow, controlled breathing to reduce tension and anxiety.
232
Imagery / visualisation
Mentally rehearsing performance to improve confidence and control anxiety.
233
Mental rehearsal (anxiety control)
Repeatedly imagining successful performance before action.
234
Positive self-talk
Using encouraging internal statements to improve focus and confidence.
235
Motivation (general)
The drive that directs and energises behaviour toward a goal.
236
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from internal satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest.
237
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from external rewards or pressures.
238
Tangible reward
A physical reward. Example: medals, trophies, money.
239
Intangible reward
A non-physical reward. Example: praise, status, recognition.
240
Achievement motivation
The drive to strive for success and excellence.
241
Need to achieve / Nach
A motive to seek success and challenge.
242
Need to avoid failure / Naf
A motive to avoid situations where failure may occur.
243
Link between achievement motivation, personality, and situation
Whether a performer approaches or avoids challenge depends on their personality and the perceived difficulty of the situation.
244
Competitiveness
A desire to compare oneself with others and win.
245
Sport-specific achievement motivation
The level of motivation to achieve in sporting situations.
246
Competitive trait anxiety
A tendency to feel anxious in competitive environments.
247
Self-efficacy
A performer's belief in their ability to succeed in a specific task.
248
Self-confidence
A more general belief in one's ability and worth.
249
Relationship between self-efficacy, motivation, and self-confidence
Higher self-efficacy and confidence usually increase persistence, effort, and motivation.
250
Skill
A learned ability to bring about a predetermined result with maximum certainty and minimum time or energy.
251
Ability
A relatively stable natural or inherited trait that supports performance.
252
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from practice or experience.
253
Performance
The execution of a skill or task.
254
Characteristics of skilled performance
Efficient, fluent, accurate, aesthetically pleasing, controlled, and consistent.
255
Gross motor ability
An ability involving large muscle groups and whole-body movement. Example: balance.
256
Psychomotor ability
An ability involving processing information and coordinating movement. Example: reaction time.
257
Pacing
The timing or rate at which a skill is performed.
258
Internal pacing
When the performer controls the timing of the movement. Example: a gymnast starting a routine.
259
External pacing
When timing is controlled by outside factors. Example: returning a tennis serve.
260
Difficulty continuum
Classifying skills by how hard they are to perform.
261
Simple skill
A skill with few decisions and little information to process. Example: sprint start.
262
Complex skill
A skill requiring lots of information processing and decision-making. Example: a football pass under pressure.
263
Organisation continuum
Classifying skills by whether they can be broken into parts.
264
Low organisation skill
A skill with clear parts that can be practised separately. Example: triple jump phases.
265
High organisation skill
A skill where parts are closely linked and should be practised as a whole. Example: cycling action.
266
Continuity continuum
Classifying skills by whether they have a clear beginning and end.
267
Discrete skill
A skill with a clear start and finish. Example: a golf putt.
268
Serial skill
A group of discrete skills linked together. Example: a gymnastics routine.
269
Continuous skill
A skill with no obvious beginning or end. Example: swimming.
270
Muscular involvement continuum
Classifying skills by the size of muscle groups used.
271
Gross skill
A skill using large muscle groups. Example: running.
272
Fine skill
A skill using small muscle groups and precision. Example: archery release.
273
Environmental influence continuum
Classifying skills by whether the environment is stable or changing.
274
Open skill
A skill performed in an unpredictable environment. Example: passing in football.
275
Closed skill
A skill performed in a stable, predictable environment. Example: a penalty in golf putting practice.
276
Learning curve
A graph showing changes in performance over time.
277
Positive learning curve
Performance improves steadily over time.
278
Negative learning curve
Performance becomes worse over time.
279
Linear learning curve
Performance improves at a constant rate.
280
Plateau learning curve
Performance levels off for a period despite practice.
281
Observational learning
Learning by watching and copying others.
282
Demonstration
Showing a skill so the learner can observe the correct movement pattern.
283
Attention
The learner notices and focuses on the demonstration.
284
Retention
The learner remembers what has been observed.
285
Motor reproduction
The learner physically reproduces the observed movement.
286
Motivation (observational learning)
The learner must want to copy and perform the skill.
287
Matching performance
The learner compares their own performance with the model and adjusts it.
288
DARMM
The stages of observational learning: demonstration, attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
289
Positive reinforcement
A reward given after desired behaviour to strengthen it.
290
Negative reinforcement
Removing something unpleasant to strengthen desired behaviour.
291
Punishment
Applying an unpleasant consequence to reduce unwanted behaviour.
292
Drive reduction theory
A theory suggesting behaviour is reinforced when it reduces an unpleasant drive or need.
293
Fitts and Posner stages of learning
A model describing how performers develop skill through three stages.
294
Cognitive stage
The beginner stage where the learner thinks a lot and makes many errors.
295
Associative stage
The stage where performance becomes more consistent and the learner refines the skill.
296
Autonomous stage
The stage where the skill becomes automatic and requires little conscious thought.
297
Transfer of learning
The effect that learning one skill has on learning or performing another.
298
Positive transfer
When previous learning helps new learning. Example: throwing skills transferring from cricket to javelin.
299
Negative transfer
When previous learning interferes with new learning.
300
Proactive transfer
When an old skill affects a new skill.
301
Retroactive transfer
When a new skill affects a previously learned skill.
302
Bilateral transfer
Transfer of learning from one side of the body to the other.
303
Method of practice
The way practice is organised to improve learning.
304
Whole practice
Practising the entire skill at once.
305
Part practice
Breaking a skill into sections and practising each part separately.
306
Progressive-part practice
Practising parts one at a time and gradually joining them together.
307
Variable practice
Practising skills in changing situations or conditions.
308
Fixed practice
Practising the same skill repeatedly in the same way.
309
Massed practice
Practice with little or no rest between attempts.
310
Distributed practice
Practice with rest periods between attempts.
311
Mental rehearsal (practice method)
Imagining the skill being performed without physically doing it.
312
Physical practice
Actually performing the skill.
313
Guidance
Support given to help a learner perform a skill.
314
Visual guidance
Guidance through seeing a demonstration, video, or image.
315
Verbal guidance
Guidance through spoken instruction.
316
Manual guidance
Physical support from a coach or teacher.
317
Mechanical guidance
Support from equipment or apparatus. Example: stabilisers on a bike.
318
Feedback
Information received about performance.
319
Intrinsic feedback
Feedback that comes from the performer's own senses.
320
Extrinsic feedback
Feedback that comes from an outside source such as a coach.
321
Knowledge of results / KR
Feedback about the outcome of a performance. Example: whether the shot went in.
322
Knowledge of performance / KP
Feedback about the quality or technique of the movement. Example: elbow position during a throw.
323
Culture
The shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviours of a group.
324
Sport as a social institution
Sport as an organised part of society that reflects and influences values, norms, and behaviour.
325
Social control
The use of sport to regulate behaviour and encourage accepted social values.
326
Social institution
An organised structure in society that meets social needs. Example: education, family, religion, sport.
327
Socialisation
The process through which people learn the norms and values of society.
328
National identity
A shared sense of belonging to a nation, often strengthened through sport.
329
19th century English public school and university system
The setting in which many modern sports were organised, codified, and developed.
330
Codification
The process of writing down formal rules for a sport.
331
Rationalisation
The process of making sport more structured, organised, and controlled.
332
Three stages of development in modern sport
Simple folk games became more organised, then codified, then governed under formal bodies and rules.
333
Amateurism
Participation in sport for enjoyment rather than financial reward.
334
Professionalism
Participation in sport as paid work.
335
Commercialisation of sport
The process by which sport becomes linked to business, sponsorship, media, and profit.
336
Movement from amateurism to professionalism
The shift from playing for participation and honour toward paid, organised competitive sport.
337
Olympism
A philosophy linked to the Olympic movement that promotes participation, excellence, friendship, and respect.
338
Shamateurism
When performers claim to be amateurs while receiving hidden financial support or rewards.
339
Sport as a political tool
Using sport to influence public opinion, express power, or achieve political aims.
340
Boycott
Refusing to take part in a sporting event for political or moral reasons.
341
Protest in sport
Using sport or sporting events to express opposition or demand change.
342
Diplomacy through sport
Using sport to improve relations between countries.
343
Promotion of national identity through sport
Using sporting success and events to strengthen national pride and unity.
344
Social stratification
The division of society into layers based on factors such as class, gender, ethnicity, disability, and income.
345
Application of social stratification to sport
Different social groups have unequal opportunities, access, and experiences in sport.
346
Prejudice
A preconceived opinion about a person or group, often not based on reason.
347
Stereotyping
Assuming all members of a group share the same characteristics.
348
Discrimination
Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on social characteristics.
349
Ethnic minorities in sport
Groups with minority ethnic backgrounds who may face barriers or stereotyping in sport.
350
Women in sport
A social group that has historically faced barriers such as sexism, fewer opportunities, and lower media coverage.
351
Disabled people in sport
A group that may face barriers related to access, provision, attitudes, and resources.
352
Socially deprived groups
People from lower socio-economic backgrounds who may face financial, cultural, and access barriers to sport.
353
Barrier to participation
A factor that reduces or prevents involvement in sport.
354
Opportunity
Access to suitable activities, clubs, facilities, and pathways.
355
Provision
The availability of facilities, coaching, funding, and sporting programmes.
356
Esteem
A person's sense of confidence, worth, or feeling that sport is for them.
357
Economic factors affecting participation
Money-related factors such as cost of kit, transport, club fees, and facility access.
358
Socio-cultural factors affecting participation
Social and cultural influences such as traditions, expectations, role models, and attitudes.
359
Sporting achievement for disadvantaged groups
Success in sport may be limited by reduced access, support, and opportunities.
360
Strategies for improving participation
Policies and actions designed to reduce barriers and increase inclusion in sport.
361
Examples of strategies for improving participation
Targeted funding, inclusive facilities, anti-discrimination policies, positive role models, school-club links, and community outreach.
A Level P E Unit1 Flashcards Master Class
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Decks in class (26)
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